臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

烷基酚類（alkylphenols）目前已被視為環境荷爾蒙之一，以壬基酚（4-nonylphenol，NP）、辛基酚（4-tert-octylphenol，OP）為主；而丁基酚（2,4- di-tert-butylphenol，BP）則用於塑膠及橡膠之安定劑及抗氧化劑，由於使用廣泛，因此國人在日常生活中有相當多的機會暴露於烷基酚類之環境荷爾蒙。
青春期的學生處於身體快速發育時期，研究指出暴露壬基酚會影響動物青春期開始的時間，但是對人類青春期性徵發育的影響則尚未得知。
本研究由台灣北、中、南、東四區分別收集國小及國中學生的尿液樣本；每位受試者提供早上起床第一次尿液及放學前的尿液樣本，分析其體內烷基酚濃度，並配合飲食習慣、第二性徵發育情形問卷等，分析比較體內烷基酚濃度與青春期發育的關係。
研究對象包括國中一、二年級學生(378人，包括男生176人，女生202人)及國小五、六年級學生(408人，包括男生211人，女生197人) 。第二性徵發育情形，男學生依出現比例之高低排序依次為：青春痘(50%)、聲音低沉(40.4%)、體毛(39.6%)、鬍鬚(36.3%)、喉結突出(34.7%)、肩膀變寬(32.4%)、夢遺 (18.9%)；女學生部分，出現比例高低依次為：乳房發育(86.5%)、青春痘(66.4%)、體毛(61.2%)、出現月經(55.6%)、臀部變大(29.3%)、皮下脂肪變多(28.8%)，平均初經年齡為11.5±0.9歲。
各地區國小學生尿中壬基酚、辛基酚、丁基酚平均濃度分別介於1.61~8.64、2.19~16.14、 nd~2.43 μg/g creatinine；國中學生尿中壬基酚、辛基酚、丁基酚濃度則分別介於0.90~2.19、0.53~2.47、 0.75~1.39 μg/g creatinine。
經邏輯斯迴歸分析，結果顯示壬基酚暴露是女生初經年齡降低的顯著影響因子，但是對於其他青春期第二性徵之發育則沒有顯著影響。與其他族群比較，本研究族群尿液中壬基酚濃度較其他成年人族群低。本研究建立台灣地區青春期學童體內烷基酚之濃度資料，並發現烷基酚普遍存在於國人體內，其長時間暴露可能引起的生育影響仍然值得追蹤研究。

Alkylphenols (APs), mainly composed of nonylphenol (NP) and octylphenol (OP), are known as environmental hormone. 2,4-Di-tert-butylphenol (BP) is widely used as additives and antioxidants in plastic, rubber and surfactants. Because of widely uses of APs, population in Taiwan may ubiquitously expose to the hormone-like APs.
Studies have reported that nonylphenol can accelerate the onset of puberty of female rats, but the effects of NP upon adolescent human are unknown. Adolescent students are at a rapidly physical and sexual development period. This study assessed whether APs exposure affects sexualidy development in human at the age of puberty. Participants were students recruited elementary school and junior high school from northern, central, southern and eastern Taiwan. Urine samples, and information on demographic data, diet preferences and sexualities development status of each participant were collected.
We recruited 378 junior high school students (grade 1 and 2) and 408 elementary school students (grade 5 and 6). In male students self-reported sexuality development status, 50.0% got pimples, 40.4% got voice changing, 39.6% got body hair growing, 36.3% had facial hair, 34.7% had an Adam’s apple, 32.4% became wider shoulders and 18.9% had nocturnal emission. In the results of female students’ reports, 86.5% had breast development, 66.4% got pimples, 61.2% appeared body hair, 55.6% experienced first menstrual cycle, 29.3% became wider hips, 28.8% showed subcutaneous fat increasing, and the average age of fist menstruation was 11.5±0.9 years old.
The average urinary NP, OP and BP levels of elementary school students ranged from 1.61 to 8.64, 2.19 to 16.14 and nd to 2.43 μg/g creatinine, respectively. Those of junior high school students ranged from 0.90 to 2.19, 0.53 to 2.47, and 0.75 to 1.39 μg/g creatinine, respectively. Logistic regression analysis showed NP affected the age of girls’ fist menstruation, but no other effects on sexualities development were seen. Comparing to other study populations, urinary NP levels of adolescent students were relatively lower.
This study established valuable information on urinary AP levels for Taiwanese adolescent students. Since the commonly APs exposure among Taiwanese, follow-up monitoring was needed to realize the potential cumulative effects on reproductive system.

摘要 I
Abstract III
目錄 IV
表目錄 VII
圖目錄 VIII
第一章 前言 1
第一節 研究緣起 1
第二節 研究目的 3
第二章 文獻探討 4
第一節 環境荷爾蒙介紹 4
第二節 烷基酚類之物理、化學特性 4
2-2-1烷基酚介紹 4
2-2-2烷基酚類之物理、化學特性 5
第三節 烷基酚類的用途與用量 5
2-3-1用途 5
2-3-2使用量 6
第四節 水環境流佈 6
2-4-1污水處理廠 6
2-4-2河川、底泥 7
第五節 烷基酚的其他可能來源 9
2-5-1空氣 9
2-5-2食物 9
第六節 對水中生物的影響 10
2-6-1魚蝦類 10
2-6-2貝類 10
第七節 對老鼠的影響 11
2-7-1壬基酚對老鼠的影響 11
2-7-2辛基酚對老鼠的影響 11
第八節 烷基酚對人體的影響及分布代謝情形 11
2-8-1人體中分布代謝情形 12
2-8-2對人體的影響 12
第九節 人類青春期及環境荷爾蒙對青春期的影響 13
2-9-1 人類青春期介紹 13
2-9-2烷基酚對青春期動物的影響 15
2-9-3烷基酚類對人類青春期的影響 15
第十節 各國對烷基酚的管理 16
2-10-1各國研究與管制情形 16
2-10-2國內管制現況 17
第三章 材料與方法 18
第一節 材料 18
3-1-1試藥 18
3-1-2器材 18
3-1-3儀器 19
第二節 方法 19
3-2-1樣本收集 19
3-2-2標準品配製 20
3-2-3試劑配製 21
3-2-4尿液樣本分析方法 21
3-2-5 儀器分析方法 22
3-2-6 尿液中肌酸酐測定 22
3-2-7 分析方法之驗證 23
3-2-8 受試學生烷基酚攝取量估計方法 24
3-2-9 統計分析 24
第四章 結果 26
第一節 實驗之驗證 26
4-1-1 回收率與精確性 26
第二節 學生基本資料描述 26
4-2-1國小學生基本資料 26
4-2-2 國中學生基本資料 27
4-2-3 受試者吃素情形探討 27
第三節 學生性徵發育情形 27
4-3-1 男學生 27
4-3-2 女學生 28
第四節 學生第二性徵發育與年齡、身高、體重、BMI之相關性 29
4-4-1 男學生 29
4-4-2 女學生 29
第五節 每日攝取食物份量及每日烷基酚攝取量估計值 29
4-5-1 各類飲食攝取量調查結果 29
4-5-2 學生壬基酚攝取量估計結果 30
4-5-3 學生辛基酚攝取量估計結果 31
4-5-4 學生丁基酚攝取量估計結果 31
第六節 學生尿液中之壬基酚、辛基酚、丁基酚濃度 32
4-6-1 壬基酚濃度 32
4-6-2 辛基酚濃度 33
4-6-3 丁基酚濃度 34
4-6-4各地區學生尿中烷基酚類上學前與放學前有無差異 34
第七節 學生第二性徵發育與尿液中烷基酚濃度之相關性 35
4-7-1男學生部分 35
4-7-2女學生部分 35
第八節 影響國小、國中學生第二性徵發育因子之邏輯斯迴歸分析 36
4-8-1男學生部分 36
4-8-2女學生部分 37
第五章 討論 39
第一節 國中小學生發育情形 39
5-1-1基本人口學資料 39
5-1-2第二性徵方面 40
第二節 受試者烷基酚濃度分布情形 41
5-2-1各國比較 41
5-2-2台灣地區不同族群烷基酚類濃度比較 42
第三節 尿中烷基酚濃度與壬基酚攝取量估計量之關係 43
第四節 第二性徵與烷基酚類濃度關係 44
第五節 邏輯斯迴歸分析探討 45
第六章 結論 46
參考文獻 47
附錄一 本研究問卷 51
附錄二 國小學生尿中烷基酚原始濃度 51
附錄三 國中學生尿中烷基酚原始濃度 51

1. Calafat AM, Kuklenyik Z, Reidy JA, Caudill SP, Ekong J, Needham LL: Urinary concentrations of bisphenol A and 4-nonylphenol in a human reference population. Environmental Health Perspectives 2005, 113:391-395.
2. 王正雄: 壬基苯酚環境荷爾蒙對環境生態之影響. 環境檢驗雙月刊 2001, 39:5-8.
3. White R, Jobling S, Hoare SA, Sumpter JP, Parker MG: Environmentally persistent alkylphenolic compounds are estrogenic. Endocrinology 1994, 135:175-182.
4. Ying GG, Williams B, Kookana R: Environmental fate of alkylphenols and alkylphenol ethoxylates - review. Environment International 2002, 28:215-226.
5. Tan BL, Kassim NM, Mohd MA: Assessment of pubertal development in juvenile male rats after sub-acute exposure to bisphenol A and nonylphenol. Toxicology letters 2003, 143:261-270.
6. Kuklenyik Z, Ekong J, Cutchins CD, Needham LL, Calafat AM: Simultaneous measurement of urinary bisphenol A and alkylphenols by automated solid-phase extractive derivatization gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Analytical chemistry 2003, 75:6820-6825.
7. Shao B, Han H, Tu X, Huang L: Analysis of alkylphenol and bisphenol A in eggs and milk by matrix solid phase dispersion extraction and liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of chromatography B 2007, 850:412-416.
8. Guenther K, Heinke V, Thiele B, Kleist E, Prast H, Raecker T: Endocrine Disrupting Nonylphenols Are Ubiquitous in Food. Environmental Science & Technology 2002, 36:1676-1680.
9. Xiao Q, Li Y, Ouyang H, Xu P, Wu D: High-performance liquid chromatographic analysis of bisphenol A and 4-nonylphenol in serum, liver and testis tissues after oral administration to rats and its application to toxicokinetic study. Journal of Chromatography B 2006, 830:322-329.
10. Wilson NK, Chuang JC, Morgan MK, Lordo RA, Sheldon LS: An observational study of the potential exposures of preschool children to pentachlorophenol, bisphenol-A, and nonylphenol at home and daycare. Environmental Research 2007, 103:9-20.
11. Hossaini A, Dalgaard M, Vinggaard AM, Pakarinen P, Larsen JJ: Male reproductive effects of octylphenol and estradiol in Fischer and Wistar rats. Reproductive toxicology 2003, 17:607-615.
12. Skakkebaek NE, Rajpert-De Meyts E, Jorgensen N, Carlsen E, Petersen PM, Giwercman A, Andersen AG, Jensen TK, Andersson AM, Muller J: Germ cell cancer and disorders of spermatogenesis: an environmental connection? APMIS 1998, 106:3-11.
13. Muller S, Schmid P, Schlatter C.: Pharmacokinetic behavior of 4-nonylphenol in humans. Environmental toxicology and pharmacology 1998, 5:257-265.
14. Inoue K, Yoshimura Y, Makino T, Nakazawa H: Determination of 4-nonylphenol and 4-octylphenol in human blood samples by high-performance liquid chromatography with multi-electrode electrochemical coulometric-array detection. Analyst 2000, 125:1959-1961.
15. Gilbert J, Startin JR, McGuinness JD: Compositional analysis of commercial PVC bottles and studies of aspects of specific and overall migration into foods and stimulants. Food additives and contaminants 1986, 3:133-143.
16. Guenther K, Heinke V, Thiele B, Kleist E, Prast H, Raecker T: Endocrine disrupting nonylphenols are ubiquitous in food. Environmental science & technology 2002, 36:1676-1680.
17. Shao B, Han H, Li D, Zhao R, Meng J, Ma Y: [Analysis of nonylphenol, octylphenol and bisphenol A in animal tissues by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry with accelerated solvent extraction]. Se pu = Chinese journal of chromatography / Zhongguo hua xue hui 2005, 23:362-365.
18. Kim HS, Shin JH, Moon HJ, Kang IH, Kim TS, Kim IY, Seok JH, Pyo MY, Han SY: Comparative estrogenic effects of p-nonylphenol by 3-day uterotrophic assay and female pubertal onset assay. Reproductive toxicology 2002, 16:259-268.
19. Laws SC, Carey SA, Ferrell JM, Bodman GJ, Cooper RL: Estrogenic activity of octylphenol, nonylphenol, bisphenol A and methoxychlor in rats. Toxicological sciences 2000, 54:154-167.
20. Takagi H, Shibutani M, Masutomi N, Uneyama C, Takahashi N, Mitsumori K, Hirose M: Lack of maternal dietary exposure effects of bisphenol A and nonylphenol during the critical period for brain sexual differentiation on the reproductive/endocrine systems in later life. Archives of Toxicology 2004, 78:97-105.
21. Willoughby KN, Sarkar AJ, Boyadjieva NI, Sarkar DK: Neonatally administered tert-octylphenol affects onset of puberty and reproductive development in female rats. Endocrine 2005, 26:161-168.
22. Den HE, Roels HA, Hoppenbrouwers K, Nawrot T, Thijs L, Vandermeulan C, Winneke G, Vanderschueren D, Staessen JA: Sexual maturation in relation to polychlorinated aromatic hydrocarbons:Sharpe and Skakke-baek's hypothesis revisited. Environmental Health Perspectives 2002, 110:771-776.
23. Saiyed H, Dewan A, Bhatnagar V, Shenoy U, Shenoy R, Rajmohan H: Effect of endosulfan on male reproductive development. Environmental Health Perspectives 2003, 111:1958–1962.
24. 吳建誼、丁望賢: 環境荷爾蒙--壬基苯酚與雙酚A在台灣水環境中之分析與流布調查. 環境檢驗雙月刊 2000, 33:6-12.
25. 王正雄: 環境荷爾蒙--地球村二十一世紀之熱門話題. 環境檢驗雙月刊 2000, 29:3-7.
26. 王正雄、張小萍、黃壬瑰、李宜樺、王世冠、洪文宗、陳珮珊: 環境荷爾蒙-壬基苯酚殘留調查及其對雄鯉魚生理效應之研究. 臺灣公共衛生雜誌 2001, 20:202-215.
27. 游呈祥、張碧芬、袁紹英: 值得注意的環境荷爾蒙--壬基苯酚，環境分布與調查初探. 環境檢驗雙月刊 2001, 39:4-10.
28. 行政院環境保護署環境衛生暨毒物管理處: 毒性化學物質篩選運作管理規劃與用途評析. 2003.
29. 張小萍: 壬基苯酚(NP)--清潔劑的代謝物對河川生態之影響. 環境檢驗雙月刊 2002, 40:3-7.
30. 丁望賢、鄭智元: 檢測家用清潔劑中壬基苯酚聚乙氧基醇類之含量. 環境檢驗雙月刊 2002, 45:9-17.
31. Sole M, Maria J, López de Alda, Castillo M, Porte C, Ladegaard-Pedersen K, Damià B: Estrogenicity determination in sewage treatment plants and surface waters from the Catalonian area. Environmental Science & Technology 2000, 34:5076–5083.
32. Renner R: European bans on surfactant trigger transatlantic debate. Environmental Science & Technology 1997, 31:316A–320A.
33. Staples CA, Williams JB, Blessing RL, Varineau PT: Measuring the biodegradability of nonylphenol ether carboxylates, octylphenol ether carboxylates, and nonylphenol. Chemosphere 1999, 38:2029-2039.
34. Staples CA, Naylor CG, Williams JB, Gledhill WE: Ultimate biodegradation of alkylphenol ethoxylate surfactants and their biodegradation intermediates. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry / SETAC 2001, 20:2450-2455.
35. Giger W, Brunner PH, Schaffner C: 4-Nonylphenol in sewage sludge: accumulation of toxic metabolites from nonionic surfactants. Science 1984, 225:623-625.
36. Dayue YS, Robie WM, Michale GI: Persistence of nonylphenol ethoxylate surfactants and their primary degradation products in sedments from near a municipal outfall in the strait of Georgia, British Columbia, Canada. Environmental Science & Technology 1999, 33:1366-1372.
37. Corvini PF, Schaffer A, Schlosser D: Microbial degradation of nonylphenol and other alkylphenols--our evolving view. Applied microbiology and biotechnology 2006, 72:223-243.
38. Telscher MJ, Schuller U, Schmidt B, Schaffer A: Occurrence of a nitro metabolite of a defined nonylphenol isomer in soil/sewage sludge mixtures. Environmental Science & Technology 2005, 39:7896-7900.
39. Ekelund R, Granmo A, Magnusson K, Berggren M, Bergman A: Biodegradation of 4-nonylphenol in seawater and sediment. Environmental pollution 1993, 79:59-61.
40. Hemmer MJ, Hemmer BL, Bowman CJ, Kroll KJ, Folmar LC, Marcovich D, Hoglund MD, Denslow ND: Effects of p-nonylphenol, methoxychlor, and endosulfan on vitellogenin induction and expression in sheepshead minnow (Cyprinodon variegatus). Environmental toxicology and chemistry / SETAC 2001, 20:336-343.
41. Sundaram KM, Szeto S: The dissipation of nonylphenol in stream and pond water under simulated field conditions. Journal of environmental science and health. Part. B 1981, 16:767-776.
42. Fries E, Puttmann W: Occurrence and behaviour of 4-nonylphenol in river water of Germany. Journal of environmental monitoring 2003, 5:598-603.
43. Shang DY, Ikonomou MG: Persistence of nonylphenol ethoxylate surfactants and their primary degradation products in sediments from near a municipal outfall in the Strait of Georgia British Columbia, Canada. Environmental Science & Technology 1999, 33:1366–1372
44. Kawahata H, Ohta H, Inoue M, Suzuki A: Endocrine disrupter nonylphenol and bisphenol A contamination in Okinawa and Ishigaki Islands, Japan--within coral reefs and adjacent river mouths. Chemosphere 2004, 55:1519-1527.
45. Manzano MA, Perales JA, Sales D, Quiroga JM: The effect of temperature on the biodegradation of a nonylphenol polyethoxylate in river water Water Research 1999, 33:2593-2600.
46. Li D, Kim M, Shim WJ, Yim UH, Oh JR, Kwon YJ: Seasonal flux of nonylphenol in Han River, Korea. Chemosphere 2004, 56:1-6.
47. Cheng CY, Wu CY, Wang CH, Ding WH: Determination and distribution characteristics of degradation products of nonylphenol polyethoxylates in the rivers of Taiwan. Chemosphere 2006, 65:2275-2281.
48. Dachs J, Daryl A, Van Ry, Steven J: Occurrence of Estrogenic Nonylphenols in the Urban and Coastal Atmosphere of the Lower Hudson. Environmental Science & Technology 1999, 33:2676-2679.
49. Berkner S, Streck G, Herrmann R: Development and validation of a method for determination of trace levels of alkylphenols and bisphenol A in atmospheric samples. Chemosphere 2004, 54:575-584.
50. Nagel SC, vom Saal FS, Thayer KA, Dhar MG, Boechler M, Welshons WV: Relative binding affinity-serum modified access (RBA-SMA) assay predicts the relative in vivo bioactivity of the xenoestrogens bisphenol A and octylphenol. Environmental health perspectives 1997, 105:70-76.
51. Tan BL, Mohd MA: Analysis of selected pesticides and alkylphenols in human cord blood by gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer. Talanta 2003, 61:385-391.
52. Sasaki K, Nemotto S, Imanaka M, Eot S, Murakami E, Toyoda M: Determination of alkylphenols and 2,4-dichlorophenol in foods. Journal of the Food Hygienic Society of Japan 1999:460-472.
53. Nemoto S, Takatsuki S, Sasaki K, Toyoda M.: Determination of 2,4,6-tri-tert-butylphenol and related compounds in foods. Journal of the Food Hygienic Society of Japan 2001, 42:359-366.
54. Fernandes AR, Costley CT, Rose M: Determination of 4-octylphenol and 4-nonylphenol congeners in composite foods. Food additives and contaminants 2003, 20:846-852.
55. Lu YY, Chen ML, Sung FC, Paulus Shyi-Gang Wang , Mao IF: Daily intake of 4-nonylphenol in Taiwanese. Environment International 2007.
56. Hemmer MJ, Bowman CJ, Hemmer BL, Friedman SD, Marcovich D, Kroll KJ, Denslow ND: Vitellogenin mRNA regulation and plasma clearance in male sheepshead minnows, (Cyprinodon variegatus) after cessation of exposure to 17 beta-estradiol and p-nonylphenol. Aquatic toxicology (Amsterdam, Netherlands) 2002, 58:99-112.
57. Yadetie F, Male R: Effects of 4-nonylphenol on gene expression of pituitary hormones in juvenile Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquatic toxicology (Amsterdam, Netherlands) 2002, 58:113-129.
58. Coldham NG, Sivapathasundaram S, Dave M, Ashfield LA, Pottinger TG, Goodall C, Sauer MJ: Biotransformation, tissue distribution, and persistence of 4-nonylphenol residues in juvenile rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). Drug metabolism and disposition 1998, 26:347-354.
59. Naylor CG: Environmental fate and safety of nonylphenol ethoxylates. Textile Chemist and Colorist 1995, 27:29-33.
60. Nice HE, Thorndyke MC, Morritt D, Steele S, Crane M: Development of Crassostrea gigas larvae is affected by 4-nonylphenol Marine pollution bulletin 2000, 40:491-496.
61. Nice HE, Morritt D, Crane M, Thorndyke M: Long-term and transgenerational effects of nonylphenol exposure at a key stage in the development of Crassostrea gigas. Possible endocrine disruption : Marine Ecology Progress Series 2003, 256:293-300.
62. Lee PC: Disruption of male reproductive tract development by administration of the xenoestrogen, nonylphenol, to male newborn rats. Endocrine 1998, 9:105-111.
63. Nagao T, Wada K, Marumo H, Yoshimura S, Ono H: Reproductive effects of nonylphenol in rats after gavage administration: a two-generation study. Reproductive toxicology 2001, 15:293-315.
64. Blake CA, Boockfor FR: Chronic Administration of the Environmental Pollutant 4-Tert-Octylphenol to Adult Male Rats Interferes with the Secretion of Luteinizing Hormone, Follicle-Stimulating Hormone, Prolactin, and Testosterone. Biology of Reproduction 1997, 57:255-266.
65. Certa H FN, Wiegand HJ, Müller MF, .Bolt HM: Toxicokinetics of p-tert-octylphenol in male Wistar rats. Archives of ToxicologyArchives of Toxicology 1996, 71:112-122.
66. Minami Y, Iida K, Tajima H: [Absorption of a vaginal contraceptive, nonoxynol (polyoxyethylene nonylphenyl ether) and its metabolism to nonylphenol in female rabbits]. Yakugaku Zasshi 2000, 120:298-303.
67. Monteiro-Riviere NA, van Miller JP, Simon G, Joiner RL, Brooks JD, Riviere JE: Comparative in vitro percutaneous absorption of nonylphenol and nonylphenol ethoxylates (NPE-4 and NPE-9) through human, porcine and rat skin. Toxicology & Industrial Health 2000, 16:49-57.
68. Otaka H, Yasuhara A, Morita M: Determination of bisphenol A and 4-nonylphenol in human milk using alkaline digestion and cleanup by solid-phase extraction. Analytical sciences 2003, 19:1663-1666.
69. Inoue K, Kawaguchi M, Okada F, Takai N, Yoshimura Y, Horie M, Izumi S-i, Makino T, Nakazawa H: Measurement of 4-nonylphenol and 4-tert-octylphenol in human urine by column-switching liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Analytica Chimica Acta 2003, 486:41-50.
70. Kawaguchi M, Inoue K, Sakui N, Ito R, Izumi S, Makino T, Okanouchi N, Nakazawa H: Stir bar sorptive extraction and thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for the measurement of 4-nonylphenol and 4-tert-octylphenol in human biological samples. Journal of Chromatogr B 2004, 799:119-125.
71. Soto AM, Justicia H, Wray JW, Sonnenschein C: p-Nonyl-phenol: an estrogenic xenobiotic released from "modified" polystyrene. Environ Health Perspect 1991, 92:167-173.
72. 陳淑芬: 青春期美容. 中醫兒科醫學雜誌 2004, 6:67-71.
73. 麥麗敏、祈業榮、廖美華、鍾麗琴、戴瑄、黃玉琪: 簡明解剖生理學: 華杏出版; 2003.
74. 江東穎: 內分泌學精義. 藝軒圖書出版社; 1999.
75. de Jager C, Bornman, Oosthuizen MS: II. The effect of p-nonylphenol on the fertility potential of male rats after gestational, lactational and direct exposure. Andrologia 1999, 31:107-113.
76. Fan Q, Li W, Shen L: Adverse effects of exposure to p-nonylphenol on reproductive system of young male rats. Zhonghua yu fang yi xue za zhi [Chinese journal of preventive medicine] 2001, 35:344-346.
77. Odum J, Tinwell H, Van Miller J, Joiner R, Ashby J: The uterotrophic activity of nonylphenol in the rat is not mediated by aromatase enzyme induction. Toxicology letters 2001, 118:165-169.
78. Ashby J: Testing for endocrine disruption post-EDSTAC:extrapolation of low dose rodent effects to humans. Toxicology letters 2001, 120:233-242.
79. Wenzel A, Bohmer W, Muller J, Rudel H, Schroter-Kermani C: Retrospective monitoring of alkylphenols and alkylphenol monoethoxylates in aquatic biota from 1985 to 2001: results from the German Environmental Specimen Bank. Environmental science & technology 2004, 38:1654-1661.
80. 日本環境部: http://www.env.go.jp/chemi/end/kento1304/en-annai2.pdf.
81. Brooke DW, Mitchell R, Johnson I: UK environmental risk assessment report :4-tert-Octylphenol(CAS No.140-66-9) National Centre for Ecotoxicology and Hazardous Substances, Environment Agency: Almondsbury (Bristol) 2003, U.K.
82. 行政院環境保護署: 多氯聯苯等161 列管編號毒性化學物質使用用途限制等運作管理事項. 行政院公報 2005.
83. 簡淑婷: 人體尿液中壬基苯酚、辛基苯酚及丁基苯酚之同時測定方法研究. 國立陽明大學環境衛生研究所碩士論文 2002.
84. Alessio L. BA, Dell'Orto A., Toffoletto F., Ghezzi I.: Reliability of urinary creatinine as a parameter used to adjust values of urinary biological indicators. International Archives of Occupational Environmental Health 1985, 55:99-106.
85. 莊欣怡: 烷基酚類職業暴露族群之生物偵測研究. 國立陽明大學環境衛生研究所碩士論文 2004.
86. 94學年度國民中小學學生健康狀況調查報告. 教育部資訊網 wwwedutw/EDU_WEB/EDU_MGT/PHYSICAL/EDU7663001/health/960123pdf 2007.
87. 吳文豪: 青少年生長與發育狀況. 台灣醫界 1992, 35:796.
88. 吳文豪: 臺北學齡女童初經年齡與身高、體重及身體質量指數之關聯. 北市醫學雜誌 2005, 2:1098-1106.
89. 氣候監測報告. 中央氣象局全球資訊網 http://wwwcwbgovtw/.
90. 吳文豪: 臺北市營養良好與營養不良女學童初經體重之比較. 臺北市立聯合醫院 2006.
91. Cheng CY, Ding WH: Determination of nonylphenol polyethoxylates in household detergents by high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr A 2002, 968:143-150.
92. 張瀞文: 國人烷基酚類環境荷爾蒙攝取研究. 國立陽明大學環境衛生研究所碩士論文 2004.