臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

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第一章 緒論

本篇論文主題：「國際法上之不承認理論：以聯合國政治機關之決議與實踐為依據」，即以聯合國大會與安全理事會的決議與實踐為依據，依序探討國際法上的不承認理論與實踐，以及論文架構係由指導教授程家瑞老師指定，撰寫而成。但在經過論文發表與口試的審查委員建議之後，更改為「由聯合國政治機關之決議論國際法上國家不承認原則之發展」(The Development of Principle of Non-Recognition of State in International Law through the Resolutions of the United Nations Political Organs)。隨後在研讀James Crawford教授所發表之「有關片面脫離的國家實踐與國際法」(States Practice and International Law in Relation to Unilateral Secession)一文以後，受到進一步啟發，遂決定以該文為基礎研究的藍本，並且作更深入的學術研究。當然，除了James Crawford教授的前述文章之外，本文亦參酌與分析P. K. Menon教授之「國際法上之承認法：基本原則」(The Law of Recognition in International Law: Basic Principles)與John Dugard教授之「承認與聯合國」(Recognition and the United Nations)二書，以及其他許多書籍與期刊論文的論述內容，以期充足本篇論文的完整。然而，本人在撰寫的過程中，多次遇到研究的瓶頸，因此特別針對前述論文的原始題目與架構內容，進行修正與增補，希望對於廣大的讀者與研究者能夠有所助益。
由於目前一般國際法教科書都將承認法描述為一項由個別國家的片面決策予以支配的議題，在承認法的大部分討論內容裡都會明顯地涉及一些爭點，是故，本篇論文將在探討聯合國決議之效力與國際習慣之形成以後，首先將檢視國際法上之承認理論與實踐，接著探討國際聯盟的發展過程，以試圖呈現國際聯盟時期的國家實踐，證明各個國家承認國際聯盟有權於決定新國家的承認問題，亦即國際聯盟之集體承認實踐。其次，分析聯合國之發展過程與集體承認實踐。接著，本文將簡略地討論國際法上之不承認理論，以及分析國際聯盟時期，以及聯合國發展至今的集體不承認實踐。根據前述的國際法上承認與不承認理論與實踐分析結果，最後本文選擇幾個比較新興與具有研究價值的案例，進行詳細的個案研究與分析國際法上不承認行為之法律意義與效果。

第二章 聯合國決議之效力與國際習慣之形成

原則上聯合國政治機關大會與安理會決議可以區分為「決定」與「建議」兩種類型，但有時候會發布「宣言」。大會享有以聯合國憲章為基礎的組織上「決定」權，相對地，安理會則享有以其負責維持國際和平與安全為基礎的軍事行動上「決定」權。「建議」則明顯為不具有拘束力的認定。「宣言」也不具有任何法律拘束力。可見，雖然聯合國大會的決議通常屬於建議性質，並無立法效力，但是對於國際習慣的形成則有其實際的效果。首先，國際習慣的形成必須先要有許多國家一致的實踐，即一致的國家實踐，並因此經年累月地構成習尚。聯合國大會的決議意指各個國家集體地宣示某項特定的規則，並因此相當於一種國家實踐的集體表現方式。各個國家在國際組織內的投票與發言等行為同樣是一種國家實踐。若大會的決議係以大會全體會員無異議或絕對多數國家通過，包括世界上的主要大國與利害關係國，並且隨後經各國一致地重覆實行，或在其他情況下若干國家援引為法律依據者，該項決議可能確定地達到國際法規則的法位階。其次，在國家實踐成為習尚之後，並且在遵守習尚時，各國主觀上都抱持法之確信的態度來實行。各國在行為時都認為其有法律上的義務來遵守習尚的要求。因此，聯合國大會的決議可以顯示投票贊同的會員國對於特定規則所抱持的主觀意見，至於是否具有法之確信的態度則需要根據聯合國大會決議的內容與用字遣詞來進行個別的文義判斷。

第三章 國際法上承認理論

承認理論尚未獲得充分發展與法典化的成果。因此，各國仍有權承認或拒絕承認新國家，或以違憲方式建立政權的新政府。依據現代國際社會的國家實踐，承認之給予係完全委由現行的國家自行決定，亦即由國家政府的行政部門判斷與決策是否給予承認，並且該判斷與決策對於司法部門具有拘束力。新國家經由承認來確認其國際社會之地位，但這並非意指國家係由承認所創設，而是指國家必須在承認之前就已存在。即使新國家未取得承認，其仍具有主權國家的權利與特性，但是僅在其被加以承認之後，新國家才能向其他國家行使這些權力。因此，一般的政治與法律關係僅在相互承認的國家之間才會開始存在。在國家實踐上承認通常考慮國家政策、國際法與事實等複雜議題，故構成一項政治性決定。承認通常係非基於法律性質方面的理由，而被予以延遲、拒絕或給予承認。各國政府一般會依其自身的國家利益，以決定是否承認外國或其政府等新情勢。承認的法律行為具有決定國際法是否能適用於新實體與其他國家之間關係的功能。這項問題係取決於各國的決定，即在特定場合裡是否存在一個新國家或新政府。承認傳統上都被認為是單方行為。現行的各個國家僅有權利，而無義務來履行承認行為。拒絕承認新國家的存在並不會違反一般國際法，同時也不會侵犯任何其他國際社會成員的權利。如新國家承認係指國際社會上的現行成員認為新國家已確實地成立，並且滿足國際法所規定的所有國家資格要件，遂使其加入國際社會，以及取得成員資格。所以新國家承認的基礎是其國家本身的存在，而且國際社會的新會員資格條件則是國際法上關於國家資格要件的滿足。儘管承認與否的決定牽涉到國家的政策，國家擁有裁量的自由權，但無論如何其決定都不能逾越法律的規範範圍，或違反法律的基本原則。故若新國家的建立已逾越法定範圍或違反法律原則者，但其他國家則不顧新國家是否已有效成立而馬上給予承認者，此種承認當然是不合法行為，或涉及過早承認爭議。至於新政府、領土取得或其他不法情勢承認亦同。

第四章 國際聯盟與聯合國之集體承認實踐

集體承認指與一般個別或片面承認行為相對的承認方式，由一些國家透過國際集體行為，如公布宣言、締結條約或透過國際組織運作，共同對於新國家、政府或其他新情勢給予正式承認。此種集體承認方式當然有其行使上的優點，特別是避免片面或個別承認行為引起的困擾。從國際聯盟到聯合國時期國家承認實踐的演變情形觀察，以及國際組織的集體承認趨勢，各國可以透過集體承認行為在接受新情勢的資訊、評估資訊、作成決定，及傳達該決定時期，採取集體共同行動。因此，國際法學者陸續主張目前透過國家自由與任意選擇的片面承認原則應由透過國際組織如聯合國加以取代，轉換為國際組織的集體承認。集體承認制度可以適合於國際社會政治整合的性質與宗旨。此項革新得廢除某個實體對於一些國家是國家、但對於其他國家則不是國家的怪異現象。
國際社會上各國集體承認實踐在一九二○年當時不屬於一種新的現象。一八三○年希臘的承認、一八三一年比利時的承認、一八八五年剛果的承認及一九一三年的阿爾巴尼亞的承認都是源自於歐洲主要強權國家集體承認的結果。在第一次世界大戰結束時，各個非國家的實體都認知取得其國家資格承認的最有效方法，就是參加巴黎和會或加入國際聯盟兩種途徑。各國集體承認通常經由下列這些實體加入國際聯盟的方式來清楚地顯現，即在第一次世界大戰之前未符合國家資格的實體，及因未參與巴黎和平會議而無法成為國際聯盟會員的實體。這些實體在國際聯盟入會案通過之後，即取得各國集體承認與國家地位。國際聯盟時期的國際法學者普遍地傾向於支持，國際聯盟的入會許可等同於國際聯盟其他會員的國家 資格承認觀點，但是這些學者仍認為入會許可無法相同於傳統的片面承認。可是，第二次世界大戰以後的國際法學者都審慎懷疑國家資格的承認可以隱含在國際聯盟入會許可內的前述觀點。可見這些學者都完全漠視國際聯盟在此議題上的大量國際實踐，並未考慮那些主張國際聯盟的實踐基於實際的目的而修改承認法的早期觀點。
聯合國幾乎達成會籍普遍化的目標。在過去的幾十年裡，聯合國已透過其入會程序來提升與確保許多前殖民地的國家資格。現行的大多數會員國時常透過其在大會或安理會的投票行為來承認新會員的國家資格，而非經由正式承認的外交照會通知方式。因此，實在很難將聯合國入會及外交程序與集體承認概念予以區分，尤其依據聯合國憲章第四條規定國家資格構成入會條件，以及聯合國政治機關大會與安理會於允許新實體加入會員時考慮國家資格的情形。此外，歐盟在一九九一年針對東歐集團國家解體情勢，包括南斯拉夫與蘇聯解體後的新國家，利用共同宣言制定新國家承認指導方針，並採取共同外交立場，決定此種承認的標準。之後，聯合國安理會參照歐盟前述意見，而歐盟的承認實踐獲得聯合國支持。故歐盟對於南斯拉夫與蘇聯解體後的新國家承認實踐，在形式上得採納為一種集體承認的新實踐，進而影響聯合國的集體承認實踐，以及構成集體承認理論的一部分。

第五章 國際聯盟之集體不承認實踐

不承認意指缺少承認、拒絕承認或不給予承認。無論在承認的積極程序因任何一種理由而不存在的情形裡，不承認意指消極條件。不承認可能是雙邊或集體多邊行為，因此包括一國對一國雙邊不承認、或多國對一國集體不承認兩種行為態樣。在這兩種情形不承認都代表一種制裁或壓力。就國家資格、政府地位或領土取得是否已和平與自由實現而言，不承認得產生事實上的懷疑。然而，雙邊不承認通常係難以長期與一貫地加以執行，或除了弱小國家以外實際上難以有效對抗國際社會上任何中、強權國家。雙邊不承認更可以證明對於承認與被承認的兩國都造成相當不利。因此，雙邊不承認也無法再產生所有最初想要產生的杯葛效果。現今經濟及科技成長的快速發展與國家及利益之間相互依賴性的擴增程度，都促使各國與其他迄今僅生活在國際社會周圍的實體變得更加緊密與連結，及在一個相互依賴的世界裡共同承擔一切聯合、合作及協調事務，以維持彼此永續生存。為了施加一些壓力所進行的不承認政策，可能逐漸被侵蝕與掏空一些內涵。集體不承認大多係以非暴力的制裁形式適用於某種非法行為。集體不承認的目的係為阻止那些法律上無效事物轉變為有效。集體不承認是一個組織不足、但守法的國際社會對於非法行為所能提供的最低度抵抗，並且是一種對於法律上違反行為的持續反對。集體不承認意味對於違反國際法的行為實施制裁與抵制。第二次大戰以前的國家實踐，包括國際聯盟會員與非會員的國家實踐，得提供情勢不承認規則發源的證據，尤其那些違反國際法最基本原則（例如禁止侵略與奴隸交易）的情勢不承認實踐，如領土移轉、公約締結、新國家與新政府建立等型態的情勢不承認。聯合國的最近實踐與發展已經建立在這些早期經驗之上，並且支持各國都應該至少負擔義務，拒絕承認任何違反國際法上強行法的新情勢。

第六章 聯合國之集體不承認實踐

聯合國大會與安理會在下列三種主要情形裡考慮不承認原則的適用，包括(1)片面宣布獨立實體的國家不承認實踐，如卡坦加、南羅德西亞、南非黑人祖國、北塞普路斯及阿布卡吉亞；(2)領土取得的不承認實踐，如東耶路撒冷、戈蘭高地、東帝汶及伊拉克兼併科威特；以及(3)新情勢不承認，如南非管理西南非及以色列在巴勒斯坦佔領地非法建造圍牆。另外在聯合國組織的範圍以外，由個別國家或其他國際組織分別宣示的不承認政策，如針對比亞法、庫德族人或庫德斯坦、車臣、科索沃、索馬利蘭等分離或片面宣布獨立，同樣支持聯合國前述不承認實踐與不承認原則。各國應避免武力威脅或使用的義務顯然成為條約法與國際習慣法的拘束規範。這項規範應視為具有強行法性質。若違反強行法規範，將使所有領土或利益取得變為無效。在系爭行為屬於嚴重非法行為時，尤其在不法行為違背強行法時，各國依據國際習慣法規則便承擔個別或集體不承認該非法行為的義務。集體不承認的功能係為了阻止法律無效行為變成有效，並維持無效。不承認強調阻止不法情勢的穩固，及使不法情勢的國際地位受到懷疑。雖然不承認不是執行或制裁措施，但不承認是其他國際執行行動的先決條件，及確立相關法律規則所內含價值的方法。在非法行為屬於嚴重時，尤其違反強行法，各國依據國際習慣法，必須個別與集體地承擔義務不得承認該行為的合法地位。故集體不承認的主旨係為了維護法律原狀，儘管此種非法行為的有效性或已明顯獲致成功，仍然堅定否定其法律權利或國際地位。

第七章 國家不承認之個案研究
根據南羅德西亞、南非黑人祖國、北塞普路斯、車臣及比亞法等案例研究結果，本文歸納一些國際法上不承認原因，如下：

（一）違反自決權之行使規範
除了早期的殖民地與非自治領土之外，自決原則在實踐上都不被承認為已賦予現行獨立國家之內的一部分領土，擁有片面宣布獨立的分離權利，即得以片面宣布獨立或享有外部自決權，例如北塞普路斯、車臣及比亞法三個案例。在殖民地領土背景以外的自決，亦即非殖民地領土的自決權，主要是各個國家的人民透過其內國憲法上的正當程序，以及在無任何外力干預的情形之下，決定其未來的政治過程。面對著其一部分人民的明確分離主張，國家政府必須決定如何因應與擬定策略，例如強調任何改變都必須依據憲法的合法程序來執行，亦即僅限於內部自決權的行使範疇。事實上自一九四五年起，在殖民地的背景之外，還沒有任何一個新國家被允許加入聯合國，這其實都是因為其原母國堅決反對的關係。一國政府在不區分任何種類的人民，並代表全體人民時，即以平等為基礎，尤其不以種族、膚色或信仰為區分標準，該國對於其所有人民就已符合自決原則，並被授權保護其領土完整。若一國基於平等原則，並充分代表其全體人民時，該國就可以領土完整為理由，壓抑任何有關分離或外部自決權的主張。

（二）違反強行法規範：禁止使用武力規則
國際法不承認那些違反國際法原則所創造的國家。若這些國家組織係在違反那些已被承認為具有強行法或強制規範位階的國際法規則之後始建立者，這項不承認義務就變得更加嚴格。如在北塞普路斯案例，這種違反強行法的情形已然發生，即違反全面禁止非法的武力威脅或使用，侵犯任何國家領土完整與主權獨立規則。就現代國際法的不承認原則而言，不承認概念意指一項行為若違反具有強行法性質的規範者，即屬於非法行為，並因此為無效。這項規則適用於國家建立、領土取得及其他情勢。各國負擔不承認這些行為的國家責任。

第八章 國際法上不承認行為之法律意義與效果

不承認是承認的相反概念。不承認係源自於國際法的不完整所衍生的理論，即國際法上不承認理論。在不承認係由國家進行非法行為所產生的結果時，不承認可以作為國際法上一項重要的抵制與制裁措施。針對那些主張本身為國家的實體所宣布的不承認政策，主要係為引起該實體在國際法上的地位問題，並提出質疑。不承認可能是一種對於非法行為所實行的制裁，特別包括國際法上的國際不法行為與情勢，或可能指出某一實體還缺少一些達成法律結果的必需要素，如國家資格標準或政府要件，或可能表示一個國家基於政治因素不想接受另一個新國家或政府所表達的行為。針對日本侵略中國滿洲地區，美國率先宣布史汀生不承認政策，隨後由國際聯盟大會通過決議，表示各會員國負擔義務不得承認任何違反國際聯盟盟約與非戰公約所造成的新情勢、條約或協定。史汀生不承認原則的主旨係為了杯葛侵略成果、阻止侵略行為，以及阻卻時效創造法律情勢。若有違反國際法的行為發生，不承認原則將要求各國不得承認任何實體或情勢。隨後的國家實踐顯示史汀生不承認原則隨後在其有關不承認以違反國家之間禁止武力威脅或使用規則所完成的領土取得方面，已陸續加以修改，遂逐漸從單方與片面的政策聲明發展為美洲區域條約法規範，並且儘管主張史汀生原則已在國際聯盟憲章之下產生，最後也成為聯合國組織制度下的一般國際法原則。各國應避免武力威脅或使用的義務已成為一項國際法規範，因此這項規範不僅具有條約法效力，同時也具有國際習慣法效力，故可適用於世界上所有國家，包括尚未成為聯合國會員的國家。此項規範應被視為一項強行法。違反此項強行法的國家將需要承擔從這些違反行為衍生的一切領土取得或利益都歸於無效的後果。從強行法的性質與聯合國會員國及國際法院對於禁止武力使用規則所分享的合理解釋來推論，任何國家都不應該承認這類領土與利益的取得結果。各國與絕對多數的國際法學者在今日都能夠接受這項結果，因為這項結果將充分反映國際社會對於國際規範違反者的最低度反應，即不承認義務。
對於違反聯合國憲章第二條第四項武力禁止規定的不法行為所給予的承認，並不能使依據強行法為無效的所有權變成有效。史汀生原則並不排除有效原則的適用。不承認若沒有針對違反者進行事後的制裁，就無法產生實際效果。若不承認仍然是唯一反應，或制裁最後失敗，各國在一段時間經過之後就無法被禁止於承認新情勢，或至少默認其存在事實。這種陳述內容可能是令人相當不愉快的結果，但是這也充分反映國際法的相對弱點，即無強制執行力。若聯合國安理會完全善用其全部權限，及各國在聯合國組織領導下誠意地集體行動，如集體採取不承認政策與制裁措施，那麼前述缺點才能夠加以克服，進而發揮國際法上不承認原則的完整效力，並有效地遏阻國際不法行為的形成。然而，按照目前國家實踐，不承認義務並不禁止各國與違反者繼續維持一些有利於保護兩國公民的關係，如出生、死亡及婚姻登記，同時也不禁止一些較低層次的技術性接觸，如文化、科技及民間社團交流等民商事活動。

第九章 結論
針對不符合國家要件的任何政治實體，各國不應該承認其為國家，即使表面上符合國家資格的全部條件，但可能因為這種國家的建立係來自於國際不法行為，如使用武力、違背自決權或侵害人權等非法手段，所以國際社會透過國際組織集體決定方式來共同不給予承認，並要求各國遵行這項不承認政策，故針對非法建立的新國家、新政府、領土取得或其他新情勢，國際法實際上係存在不承認的國際義務。最後本文試圖整理國際法上不承認原則與適用的各個案例，並且將以橫向（水平面向）：不承認原因，以及縱向（垂直面向）：案例適用情形的思考模式，來分別歸納國際法上不承認原則及其案例適用之間的因果關係。

（一）橫向：不承認原則所包括的不承認原因
國際法上的不承認原則基本上包括以下這些不承認的原因，但不以此為限：
1.未滿足國家或政府成立要件：新國家未滿足一九三三年國家權利義務公約的四項國家資格標準；新政府未滿足有效控制要件。
2.禁止使用武力、侵略戰爭、種族隔離政策、禁止領土分裂、禁止破壞國際和平與安全等。
3.不符合自決權的行使要件，僅限於內部自決權，但不得行使外部自決權與分離權。
4.違反人權保障，包括種族歧視及種族隔離政策的實行。
5.違反禁止武力使用或威脅規則，侵略等國際不法行為。
6.違反聯合國憲章與國際法規定。
7.未得母國同意，或未得管理國同意。
8.禁止片面獨立宣布。
9.禁止領土分裂：維持領土完整性、主權獨立，以及保持佔有原則。即使在一個政體已奪取母國局部領土的有效控制情形，國際承認也不會立即授予，故國際法極度保守於領土完整。美國同樣強調領土完整的效力高於自決原則。
10.非殖民地國家：必須屬於聯合國憲章所規範的非自治領土與殖民地國家，才享有外部自決權與分離權、獨立權。
11.破壞區域或國際和平與安全或有破壞之虞。
12.違反聯合國憲章之國際託管制度。

（二）縱向：不承認原則之案例適用
國際法上不承認原則在個案適用上所涉及的不承認原因約略為：
1.卡坦加案例：
非殖民地、不符合自決權的行使要件（無分離權）、未得母國同意、禁止片面獨立宣布、侵犯一國的領土完整性、禁止領土分裂。
2.南羅德西亞案例：
不符合自決權的行使要件、違反聯合國憲章託管制度、違反人權保障，包括種族歧視及種族隔離政策的實行、未得管理國同意、侵犯一國的領土完整性、禁止片面獨立宣布。若國家資格的主張係以不合法的行為為基礎者，包括基於種族因素而有系統性地拒絕政治參與權利，這項主張無效。
3.南非黑人祖國案例：
違反人權保障，包括種族歧視及種族隔離政策的實行、不符合自決權的行使要件、違反聯合國憲章與國際法規定、禁止片面獨立宣布、禁止領土分裂。
4.北塞普路斯土耳其共和國案例：
非殖民地、不符合自決權的行使要件（無分離權）、違反禁止武力使用與侵略、未得母國同意、禁止片面獨立宣布、禁止領土分裂、破壞區域或國際和平與安全或有破壞之虞。
5.東耶路撒冷案例：
違反禁止武力使用與侵略、破壞區域或國際和平與安全或有破壞之虞。
6.戈蘭高地案例：
違反禁止武力使用與侵略。
7.東帝汶案例：
違反禁止武力使用與侵略、違反聯合國憲章託管制度、未得管理國同意。
8.伊拉克併吞科威特案例：
違反禁止武力使用與侵略、破壞區域或國際和平與安全或有破壞之虞。
9.西南非/納米比亞案例：
違反聯合國憲章託管制度、違反種族隔離。
10.比亞法案例：
非殖民地、未滿足國家成立要件、不符合自決權的行使要件（無分離權）、未得母國同意、禁止片面獨立宣布、禁止領土分裂。
11.車臣案例：
非殖民地、不符合自決權的行使要件（無分離權）、未得母國同意、禁止片面獨立宣布、禁止領土分裂。
12.科索沃案例：
非殖民地、不符合自決權的行使要件（無分離權）、未得母國同意、禁止片面獨立宣布、禁止領土分裂。
13.索馬利蘭案例：
非殖民地、不符合自決權的行使要件（無分離權）、未得母國同意、禁止片面獨立宣布、禁止領土分裂。
14.庫德族人/庫德斯坦案例：
非殖民地、不符合自決權的行使要件（無分離權）、未滿足國家或政府成立要件、未得母國同意、禁止片面獨立宣布、禁止領土分裂、破壞區域或國際和平與安全或有破壞之虞。
15.阿布卡吉亞案例：
非殖民地、不符合自決權的行使要件（無分離權）、未滿足國家成立要件、未得母國同意、禁止片面獨立宣布、禁止領土分裂、破壞區域或國際和平與安全或有破壞之虞。
16.以色列在巴勒斯坦佔領地非法建造圍牆
違反國際條約與義務。
17.法羅群島案例：
非殖民地、不符合自決權的行使要件（無分離權）、未滿足國家或政府成立要件、未得母國同意、禁止片面獨立宣布、禁止領土分裂。
18.塞巴斯卡共和國案例：
非殖民地、不符合自決權的行使要件（無分離權）、未得母國同意、禁止片面獨立宣布、禁止領土分裂、破壞區域或國際和平與安全或有破壞之虞。
19.魁北克案例：
不符合自決權的行使要件（無分離權）、未得母國同意、禁止片面獨立宣布、禁止領土分裂。
20.塞爾維亞克拉吉納共和國：
非殖民地、不符合自決權的行使要件（無分離權）、未滿足國家成立要件、未得母國同意、禁止片面獨立宣布、禁止領土分裂、破壞區域或國際和平與安全或有破壞之虞。
21.納哥爾尼卡拉巴克案例：
非殖民地、不符合自決權的行使要件（無分離權）、未滿足國家成立要件、未得母國同意、禁止片面獨立宣布、禁止領土分裂、破壞區域或國際和平與安全或有破壞之虞。

The grant of recognition is generally kept within the authority of the administrative or executive branch of national governments. Hence, it is followed to the politically or diplomatically subjective intent, other than the legally objective standards. Until now, there is still no codified rule on the subject of recognition in the international law. Almost every form of recognition principally constitutes a kind of political determination and is determined in accordance with considerations of national policy and interest, and of questions of international law and fact concerned. However, since the very difference of state practice and legal scholars’ opinions exists, it appears that the political nature of recognition did not have developed into a legal theory, such as Professor Hersch Lauterpacht’s view that there is a right to recognition and a duty to recognition. The domestic courts are excluded from the determination of and participation in the recognition of a foreign new state or government. Thence, this matter is in general determined by the administrative organs of the government and its decision has binding force upon the judiciary organs.
There are two theory discussed commonly in the legal textbooks regarding recognition, that is, the constitutive theory and the declaratory theory. However, the constitutive theory may present some difficulties and strange phenomena, such as the status of a state recognized by some and not recognized by other states. Hence, this thesis definitely supports the declaratory theory, and insisted that a state exists prior to recognition and the act of recognition is merely a formal acknowledgment and admission of an already established fact. Therefore, the recognition only declares an already existing fact. This fact shows that a particular entity possesses the all necessary qualifications of a state in accordance with the criteria of a state in international law.
In the past period, the act of recognition unfortunately has been delayed, refused or granted on the basis of political reasons, but not by legal reasons. Therefore, is has been very often used as an instrument of intervention. In view of this inappropriate situation, legal scholars have insisted that the principle of unilateral recognition on the basis of the free and arbitral choice of states should be replaced by the process of collective recognition through a universal international organization in charge of collectively granting recognition to new situations, such as the United Nations. Hence, in the United Nations system, the admittance to the United Nations implies that its arising effect is more than the recognition of statehood because it adds to the rights and obligations of a state in general international law and in the Charter of the United Nations. For instance, according to Articles 2, paragraph 1 and 4, it expresses that every members is regarded as a sovereign state by the United Nations and with a position equal to that of other sovereign states in the international law. Therefore, we can reasonably infer that all the members who voted for admission of a state to the organization of United Nations, unless they indicated their intent of objection, are to be considered as having implicitly granted the act of recognition to that state.
So, every state collectively receives important information of the situation happened, assesses that information, reaches a decision, and communicates that decision through the process of collective recognition. However, till now, the act of recognition is political in essence and is belonged to the authority of every state because it is unilateral in nature. Thence, every state can freely decide whether or not it wants to grant recognition to the situation according to its own national interests or public policy, and thus there are different political consequences. In the present period, and in the actual step of development in the international community, all states still have no common standard or position upon the political institutions, economic level or public welfare. In addition, the diversity and inconsistency on the state practice have made the above situation more complicated to reach a solution. (Menon, p. 51)
The doctrine of collective non-recognition is, generally speaking, firstly raised by the Manchukou case and is restricted to the narrow scope of territorial acquisitions by the use of force, and, in opposition, the collective recognition by any international organization is mentioned as an unrealistic idea. Therefore, the collective recognition and non-recognition of states by the international organization, like that acting through the League of Nations or the United Nations, did not grant any adequate attention and academic studies. In addition, some scholars has expressed that, whatever the explanation for this miss, it is a serious omission because it has resulted in a failure to deal with the extent to which the law of recognition has been collectivized before the League of Nations or the United Nations. Hence, this thesis will examine the developments of the collective and non-recognition in the practice of the League of Nations and the United Nations, and will attempt to express that state practice has evidenced that every state in the international community had an acknowledgment of these two international organizations’ authority to determine the questions regarding the disputes of the recognition and non-recognition.
Therefore, to sum up, this thesis will mainly and fully examine the practice of the international community acting through the United Nations, and in order to fill the non-recognition theory, includes the practice in the League of Nations and the practice of individual states or groups of states, like regional organization, acting outside the framework of the United Nations. Hence, the consideration will be given to the highly publicized and widely argued cases of non-recognition of states and entities unilaterally declaring and claiming to be a state.
After the examination, we find that the state practice and the action of the League of Nations during the inter-war period were not uniform to conclude that the principle of non-recognition of territorial conquests has become a customary international rule. Although the inconsistence above mentioned, state practice ant the action of the League of Nations manifested an evident and clear trend to the non-recognition of territorial conquests and to the non-recognition of a new state arising from the conquest or use of force. So, this trend continued the previous doctrine of non-recognition, and reflected that every state did not want to or have no willingness to recognize the new state that did not comply with some basic rules in international law, such as the serious violation of human rights. Therefore, the state practice before WWII provides the clear evidence of the origin of the doctrine of non-recognition of any kind of situations, including the territorial transfers, treaties, agreements, new states and governments that violate the most basic principle of international law, and further, the recent developments in the action of the United Nations have supported the views that states assume a legal duty or obligation to refuse to grant recognition to any situation which violate jus cogens or peremptory norms in international law.
The history in the post-WWII period showed that some form of collective recognition of states is achieved through the process of admission to membership in the United Nations. However, in recent years, when any discussion in the political organs of the United Nations, like the Assembly and Security Council, concerned the disputes of statehood, it would have debates on the subject of the non-recognition of states. Therefore, the contemporary criteria for statehood discovers mostly from the practice of non-recognition in the United Nations. So, some scholars pointed out that the key to the contemporary law of recognition is increasingly to be found in the doctrine of non-recognition when the international community explains the principles that exclude the recognition to some entities as states, such as John Dugard and P. K. Menon. The practice of the United Nations has considered the doctrine of non-recognition mainly in these three situations: (1) the non-recognition as states of entities that unilaterally claimed to be states; (2) the non-recognition of territorial acquisitions; and (3) the non-recognition of South Africa’s administration of Namibia. These cases will be discussed respectively in this thesis. Additionally, after the examination of the practice in the United Nations, we find that the United Nations emphasized the doctrine of non-recognition and the reasons that refuse to grant the statehood. Hence, there are a number of norms, discovered in the principles of non-aggression, self-determination and respect for human rights and fundamental freedom, which are in the large part responsible for the resort to the doctrine of non-recognition by the international community.
In addition, this thesis will discuss the other cases outside the organization of the United Nations, that is, the practice of non-recognition outside the United Nations, especially those cases concerning the unilaterally declared independent states that seceded from the territories of their original states, including Biafra, Chechnya, Kosovo, Somaliland, and Kurdistan cases.
The contents of this thesis are the followings: Chapter One introduces the motive and purpose of this thesis. Chapter Two analyses the effect of resolutions of United Nations and the formation of international custom. Chapter Three discusses the general theory of recognition in international law. Chapter Four focuses on the practice of collective recognition in the League of Nations and the United Nations. Then, Chapter Five firstly focuses on the practice of collective non-recognition in the League of Nations. After that, Chapter Six deeply analyze the practice of collective non-recognition in the United Nations from its formation to recent time. In order to study fully the cases, this thesis chooses some cases to further analyze in the Chapter Seven. Chapter Eight discusses the legal meanings and effects of Acts of non-recognition in international law, that is, the general theory of non-recognition in international law. Finally, Chapter Nine concludes that all the texts of this thesis and gets some much important concepts that show the reasons not to grant recognition to the new entities and situations, that is, to non-recognize them, including new states and governments, territorial acquisitions, and other new situations that seriously violate the basic norms or jus cogens in international law.

目 次
前 導 部 分
自序--------------------------------------------------------------------i

指導教授 程家瑞博士提詞-------------------------------iii

感謝詞-----------------------------------------------------------------------iv

目 次-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------v
目次---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------v
細目---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------xii
英文目次---------------------------------------------------------------------------------xxvi

縮寫表---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------xxxiii
專門術語縮寫表------------------------------------------------------------------------xxxiii
期刊縮寫表------------------------------------------------------------------------------xxxvi

論文摘要------------------------------------------------------------------------------------xli
中文摘要---------------------------------------------------------------------------------xli
英文摘要----------------------------------------------------------------------------------l

關鍵字----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------liii
中文關鍵字-------------------------------------------------------------------------------liii
英文關鍵字-------------------------------------------------------------------------------liii

論文發表會審查意見表-------------------------------------------------------------------liv
博士論文口試委員之意見表-------------------------------------------------------------lvii
本 文 部 分
第一章 緒論--------------------------------------------------------------------1
第一節 研究動機----------------------------------------------------------------------------3
第二節 研究目的----------------------------------------------------------------------------5
第三節 研究方法----------------------------------------------------------------------------6
第四節 研究架構----------------------------------------------------------------------------7
第五節 研究範圍限制----------------------------------------------------------------------8
第六節 文獻探討---------------------------------------------------------------------------10
第七節 預期貢獻---------------------------------------------------------------------------11

第二章 聯合國決議之效力與國際習慣之形成----------------------------13
第一節 聯合國政治機關大會與安理會決議之效力--------------------------------15
一、大會---------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
二、安理會------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
三、大會與安理會決議之效力------------------------------------------------------22
第二節 聯合國大會之決議與國際習慣之形成--------------------------------------27
一、國際習慣---------------------------------------------------------------------------28
二、聯合國大會決議與國際習慣形成---------------------------------------------29
三、分析---------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
第三節 小結-------------------------------------------------------------------------------35

第三章 國際法上之承認理論----------------------------------------------------37
第一節 前言-------------------------------------------------------------------------------39
第二節 承認之概念----------------------------------------------------------------------40
一、承認之定義-----------------------------------------------------------------------41
二、承認之主體-------------------------------------------------------------------------42
三、政治問題或法律問題-------------------------------------------------------------42
四、承認之法律性質-------------------------------------------------------------------43
五、承認之學說-------------------------------------------------------------------------43
第三節 國家與政府之承認---------------------------------------------------------------48
一、國家承認----------------------------------------------------------------------------49
二、政府承認----------------------------------------------------------------------------50
三、國家承認與政府承認之比較----------------------------------------------------51
第四節 承認之要件------------------------------------------------------------------------53
一、學說見解之論辯-------------------------------------------------------------------53
二、國家實踐之演變-------------------------------------------------------------------55
第五節 承認之形式------------------------------------------------------------------------60
一、事實承認與法律承認-------------------------------------------------------------60
二、明示承認與默示承認-------------------------------------------------------------62
三、個別承認與集體承認-------------------------------------------------------------63
四、不承認-------------------------------------------------------------------------------65
五、承認之撤回-------------------------------------------------------------------------67
第六節 承認之法律效果------------------------------------------------------------------67
一、承認之政治與法律效果----------------------------------------------------------67
二、國內之承認效果-------------------------------------------------------------------68
第七節 小結---------------------------------------------------------------------------------75

第四章 國際聯盟與聯合國之集體承認實踐--------------------------------77
第一節 前言--------------------------------------------------------------------------------79
第二節 國際聯盟之集體承認實踐-----------------------------------------------------81
第三節 聯合國之集體承認實踐--------------------------------------------------------88
一、學說見解：聯合國入會是否具有默示承認之效果？----------------------89
二、聯合國之會員資格---------------------------------------------------------------100
三、影響：聯合國憲章會員條款之國家定義擴張------------------------------114
四、評析---------------------------------------------------------------------------------125
第四節 南斯拉夫與蘇聯解體後之集體承認實踐：以歐盟共同合作政策為核心----------------------------------------------------127
一、東歐與蘇聯之新國家承認指導方針宣言------------------------------------128
二、南斯拉夫宣言---------------------------------------------------------------------129
三、評析---------------------------------------------------------------------------------133
第五節 小結--------------------------------------------------------------------------------133

第五章 國際聯盟之集體不承認實踐-----------------------------------------135
第一節 前言-------------------------------------------------------------------------------137
第二節 集體不承認之歷史發展-------------------------------------------------------138
一、 非正統之君主---------------------------------------------------------------------139
二、不合憲之政府---------------------------------------------------------------------140
三、強迫性之領土取得---------------------------------------------------------------147
第三節 國際聯盟之集體不承認實踐-------------------------------------------------152
一、滿洲國事件以前之實踐---------------------------------------------------------153
二、滿洲國事件時期之實踐---------------------------------------------------------156
三、滿洲國事件以後之實踐：義大利侵略衣索比亞危機事件---------------166
第四節 小結--------------------------------------------------------------------------------169

第六章 聯合國之集體不承認實踐---------------------------------------------171
第一節 前言-------------------------------------------------------------------------------173
第二節 聯合國之不承認規範----------------------------------------------------------174
第三節 集體不承認之學說見解-------------------------------------------------------177
一、學說見解---------------------------------------------------------------------------177
二、評析---------------------------------------------------------------------------------182
第四節 聯合國之集體不承認實踐----------------------------------------------------183
一、片面宣布獨立國家之不承認案例：分離------------------------------------183
二、領土取得之不承認案例----------------------------------------------------------215
三、非法佔領管理行為之不承認案例----------------------------------------------228
四、評析----------------------------------------------------------------------------------233
第五節 聯合國以外之不承認實踐-----------------------------------------------------236
一、片面宣布獨立國家之不承認案例：分離-------------------------------------238
二、評析----------------------------------------------------------------------------------288
第六節 小結---------------------------------------------------------------------------------288

第七章 國家不承認之個案研究--------------------------------------------------293
第一節 北塞普路斯土耳其共和國------------------------------------------------------299
一、前言-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------299
二、塞普路斯之背景--------------------------------------------------------------------301
三、國際組織之不承認政策-----------------------------------------------------------316
四、主要國家之不承認政策-----------------------------------------------------------328
五、國家不承認義務--------------------------------------------------------------------334
六、小結-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------338
第二節 車臣----------------------------------------------------------------------------------340
一、前言------------------------------------------------------------------------------------340
二、車俄衝突歷程------------------------------------------------------------------------341
三、車俄領土爭議------------------------------------------------------------------------352
四、車臣自決權---------------------------------------------------------------------------366
五、國際社會對車臣獨立運動之回應------------------------------------------------378
六、小結------------------------------------------------------------------------------------383
第三節 比亞法------------------------------------------------------------------------------383
一、前言------------------------------------------------------------------------------------383
二、比亞法之獨立運動------------------------------------------------------------------385
三、比亞法之自決權---------------------------------------------------------------------393
四、比亞法之國際承認爭議------------------------------------------------------------393
五、小結------------------------------------------------------------------------------------405
第四節 索馬利蘭---------------------------------------------------------------------------406
一、前言------------------------------------------------------------------------------------406
二、索馬利蘭之歷史與獨立------------------------------------------------------------409
三、索馬利蘭之分離主張---------------------------------------------------------------423
四、索馬利蘭不被承認之因素----------------------------------------------------------433
五、索馬利蘭不被承認之影響----------------------------------------------------------444
六、小結-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------448
第五節 庫德斯坦---------------------------------------------------------------------------449
一、前言------------------------------------------------------------------------------------450
二、庫德族之背景------------------------------------------------------------------------451
三、庫德族人在相關國家境內之地位------------------------------------------------455
四、庫德族人之國際法地位------------------------------------------------------------467
五、小結------------------------------------------------------------------------------------474
第六節 南非黑人祖國與班圖斯坦------------------------------------------------------475
一、前言------------------------------------------------------------------------------------476
二、班圖斯坦政策之起源---------------------------------------------------------------478
三、實行方法：剝奪國籍與建立國家------------------------------------------------479
四、班圖斯坦之國際法地位------------------------------------------------------------480
五、班圖斯坦制度之廢除---------------------------------------------------------------485
六、小結------------------------------------------------------------------------------------487
第七節 台灣---------------------------------------------------------------------------------490
一、台灣之歷史與發展------------------------------------------------------------------490
二、國際組織與他國之實踐------------------------------------------------------------495
三、中華人民共和國與中華民國之主張---------------------------------------------509
四、若台灣宣布獨立---------------------------------------------------------------------540
五、小結------------------------------------------------------------------------------------542
第八節 小結---------------------------------------------------------------------------------543

第八章 國際法上不承認行為之法律意義與效果-----------------------545
第一節 前言------------------------------------------------------------------------------547
第二節 不承認之法律意義------------------------------------------------------------547
一、不承認之概念--------------------------------------------------------------------547
二、不承認之理由--------------------------------------------------------------------549
三、不承認之意涵--------------------------------------------------------------------549
四、不承認之哲學基礎--------------------------------------------------------------561
第三節 不承認之發展：史汀生不承認原則----------------------------------------578
一、歷史背景--------------------------------------------------------------------------578
二、史汀生照會之宣布--------------------------------------------------------------580
三、史汀生原則之接受與修正-----------------------------------------------------581
第四節 不承認之義務-------------------------------------------------------------------584
一、國際實踐--------------------------------------------------------------------------585
二、學說見解：國際法上有無不承認義務？-----------------------------------586
三、不承認與強行法之關係--------------------------------------------------------592
第五節 不承認之國際法與國內法效果----------------------------------------------595
一、不承認之國際法效果-----------------------------------------------------------595
二、不承認之國內法效果-----------------------------------------------------------596
三、評析--------------------------------------------------------------------------------133
第六節 小結-------------------------------------------------------------------------------599

第九章 結論----------------------------------------------------------------------------601
一、國際法上之承認--------------------------------------------------------------------603
（一）承認理論--------------------------------------------------------------------------603
（二）承認實踐--------------------------------------------------------------------------603
（三）聯合國之集體承認實踐--------------------------------------------------------604
二、國際法上之不承認-----------------------------------------------------------------605
（一）不承認行為-----------------------------------------------------------------------605
（二）聯合國之集體不承認實踐-----------------------------------------------------605
（三）國際習慣法上之不承認義務--------------------------------------------------607
三、不承認原則及其案例適用--------------------------------------------------------608
（一）橫向：不承認原則所包括的不承認原因-----------------------------------609
（二）縱向：不承認原則之案例適用-----------------------------------------------609
參考文獻---------------------------------------------------------------------------------611
圖表：
圖1：卡坦加地圖-------------------------------------------------------------------------186
圖2：辛巴威地圖-------------------------------------------------------------------------193
圖3：南非黑人祖國地圖----------------------------------------------------------------200
圖4：塞普路斯島------------------------------------------------------------------------207
圖5：喬治亞與阿布卡吉亞地圖------------------------------------------------------214
圖6：耶路撒冷與約旦河西岸地圖---------------------------------------------------218
圖7：加薩走廊地圖---------------------------------------------------------------------219
圖8：戈蘭高地地圖---------------------------------------------------------------------220
圖9：東帝汶地圖------------------------------------------------------------------------223
圖10：伊拉克與科威特地圖-----------------------------------------------------------227
圖11：納米比亞地圖--------------------------------------------------------------------231
圖12：奈及利亞與比亞法地圖--------------------------------------------------------243
圖13：車臣地圖--------------------------------------------------------------------------248
圖14：科索沃地圖-----------------------------------------------------------------------258
圖15：索馬利亞與索馬利蘭地圖-----------------------------------------------------262
圖16：庫德斯坦分佈圖-----------------------------------------------------------------270
圖17：丹麥之法羅群島地圖-----------------------------------------------------------271
圖18：波士尼亞與赫塞哥維納及塞巴斯卡共和國地圖--------------------------273
圖19：加拿大與魁北克地圖-----------------------------------------------------------275
圖20：克羅埃西亞與塞爾維亞克拉吉納地圖--------------------------------------283
圖21：亞塞拜然與納哥爾尼卡拉巴克地圖-----------------------------------------288
圖22：巴布亞紐幾內亞與布干維爾島地圖-----------------------------------------291
圖23：喬治亞與南奧塞西亞地圖-----------------------------------------------------291
圖24：科摩洛與安秋恩島--------------------------------------------------------------292
圖25：台灣宣布獨立--------------------------------------------------------------------541
表一：聯合國有關剛果卡坦加問題之決議表---------------------------------------186
表二：聯合國有關南羅德西亞/辛巴威之決議表-----------------------------------193
表三：聯合國有關南非黑人祖國之決議表------------------------------------------201
表四：聯合國有關北塞普路斯土耳其裔共和國之決議表------------------------207
表五：聯合國關於喬治亞情勢的決議------------------------------------------------215
表六：聯合國有關以色列佔領東耶路撒冷與戈蘭高地(中東情勢)之決議表-220
表七：聯合國有關東帝汶問題之決議表----------------------------------------------224
表八：聯合國有關伊拉克侵略科威特之決議表-------------------------------------227
表九：聯合國有關西南非或納米比亞之決議表-------------------------------------232
表十：聯合國有關科索沃情勢之決議表----------------------------------------------259
表十一：聯合國有關索馬利亞情勢之決議表----------------------------------------262
表十二：聯合國關於克羅埃西亞被佔領之領土內情勢的決議-------------------283
表十三：車臣組織的劃分----------------------------------------------------------------344
表十四：奈及利亞一九六○年代地區政治情形-------------------------------------388
表十五：比亞法承認國對照表----------------------------------------------------------400

附錄：
附錄一：聯合國安理會不承認之決議表-------------------------------------------667
附錄二：聯合國大會不承認之決議表----------------------------------------------676
附錄三：博士論文口試之投影片----------------------------------------------------683


由聯合國政治機關之決議論國際法上國家不承認原則之發展
細 目
前 導 部 分
自序-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------i

指導教授 程家瑞博士提詞--------------------------------------------------------------iii

感謝詞---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------iv

目 次-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------v
目次---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------v
細目---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------xii
英文目次---------------------------------------------------------------------------------xxvi

縮寫表--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------xxxiii
專門術語縮寫表------------------------------------------------------------------------xxxiii
期刊縮寫表------------------------------------------------------------------------------xxxvi

論文摘要------------------------------------------------------------------------------------xli
中文摘要---------------------------------------------------------------------------------xli
英文摘要----------------------------------------------------------------------------------l

關鍵字----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------liii
中文關鍵字-------------------------------------------------------------------------------liii
英文關鍵字-------------------------------------------------------------------------------liii

論文發表會審查意見表-------------------------------------------------------------------liv
博士論文口試委員之意見表-------------------------------------------------------------lvii
本 文 部 分
第一章 緒論--------------------------------------------------------------------1
第一節 研究動機----------------------------------------------------------------------------3
第二節 研究目的----------------------------------------------------------------------------5
第三節 研究方法----------------------------------------------------------------------------6
第四節 研究架構----------------------------------------------------------------------------7
第五節 研究範圍限制----------------------------------------------------------------------8
第六節 文獻探討---------------------------------------------------------------------------10
第七節 預期貢獻---------------------------------------------------------------------------11

第二章 聯合國決議之效力與國際習慣之形成----------------------------13
第一節 聯合國政治機關大會與安理會決議之效力--------------------------------15
一、大會---------------------------------------------------------------------------------15
（一）組織結構------------------------------------------------------------------------15
（二）大會職權------------------------------------------------------------------------17
二、安理會------------------------------------------------------------------------------19
（一）組織結構------------------------------------------------------------------------19
（二）安理會職權---------------------------------------------------------------------20
三、大會與安理會決議之效力------------------------------------------------------22
（一）大會決定之拘束力------------------------------------------------------------24
（二）安理會決定之拘束力---------------------------------------------------------25
（三）分析------------------------------------------------------------------------------27
第二節 聯合國大會之決議與國際習慣之形成--------------------------------------27
一、國際習慣----------------------------------------------------------------------------28
二、聯合國大會決議與國際習慣形成----------------------------------------------29
（一）大會決議之拘束力-------------------------------------------------------------30
（二）大會決議之宣示性-------------------------------------------------------------31
1.懷疑論-----------------------------------------------------------------------------31
2.折衷論-----------------------------------------------------------------------------32
3.立法論-----------------------------------------------------------------------------32
（三）比較：安理會決議-------------------------------------------------------------33
三、分析----------------------------------------------------------------------------------34
第三節 小結---------------------------------------------------------------------------------35

第三章 國際法上之承認理論-----------------------------------------------------37
第一節 前言--------------------------------------------------------------------------------39
第二節 承認之概念-----------------------------------------------------------------------40
一、承認之定義-------------------------------------------------------------------------41
二、承認之主體-------------------------------------------------------------------------42
三、政治問題或法律問題-------------------------------------------------------------42
四、承認之法律性質-------------------------------------------------------------------43
五、承認之學說-------------------------------------------------------------------------43
（一）構成說---------------------------------------------------------------------------44
（二）宣示說---------------------------------------------------------------------------45
（三）構成說與宣示說之比較------------------------------------------------------46
第三節 國家與政府之承認---------------------------------------------------------------48
一、國家承認----------------------------------------------------------------------------49
二、政府承認----------------------------------------------------------------------------50
三、國家承認與政府承認之比較----------------------------------------------------51
第四節 承認之要件------------------------------------------------------------------------53
一、學說見解之論辯-------------------------------------------------------------------53
二、國家實踐之演變-------------------------------------------------------------------55
（一）君主政體之正統性------------------------------------------------------------56
（二）托巴原則------------------------------------------------------------------------56
（三）艾斯特拉達原則---------------------------------------------------------------56
（四）廢除政府承認原則------------------------------------------------------------57
（五）有效控制原則------------------------------------------------------------------58
（六）其他選擇標準------------------------------------------------------------------59
第五節 承認之形式------------------------------------------------------------------------60
一、事實承認與法律承認-------------------------------------------------------------60
二、明示承認與默示承認-------------------------------------------------------------62
三、個別承認與集體承認-------------------------------------------------------------63
四、不承認-------------------------------------------------------------------------------65
五、承認之撤回-------------------------------------------------------------------------67
第六節 承認之法律效果------------------------------------------------------------------67
一、承認之政治與法律效果----------------------------------------------------------67
二、國內之承認效果-------------------------------------------------------------------68
（一）單一發言原則------------------------------------------------------------------69
（二）承認之效力範圍---------------------------------------------------------------69
（三）不被承認之政府行為---------------------------------------------------------70
（四）承認之追溯效力---------------------------------------------------------------75
第七節 小結---------------------------------------------------------------------------------75

第四章 國際聯盟與聯合國之集體承認實踐--------------------------------77
第一節 前言--------------------------------------------------------------------------------79
第二節 國際聯盟之集體承認實踐-----------------------------------------------------81
第三節 聯合國之集體承認實踐--------------------------------------------------------88
一、學說見解：聯合國入會是否具有默示承認之效果？-----------------------89
（一）支持觀點--------------------------------------------------------------------------89
1. Hans Kelsen-------------------------------------------------------------------------89
2. Herbert Briggs ---------------------------------------------------------------------91
3. Quincy Wright----------------------------------------------------------------------92
4. John Dugard------------------------------------------------------------------------93
5. P. K. Menon------------------------------------------------------------------------94
6. 沈克勤------------------------------------------------------------------------------95
7. 丘宏達------------------------------------------------------------------------------96
8. 蘇義雄------------------------------------------------------------------------------96
（二）反對觀點---------------------------------------------------------------------------96
1. Ian Brownlie-------------------------------------------------------------------------96
2. Colin Warbrick----------------------------------------------------------------------97
3. 俞寬賜-------------------------------------------------------------------------------98
4. Gerald McGinley--------------------------------------------------------------------99
5. Malcolm N. Shaw-------------------------------------------------------------------99
6. 許慶雄與李明峻--------------------------------------------------------------------99
7. James Crawford----------------------------------------------------------------------99
（三）評析---------------------------------------------------------------------------------100
二、聯合國之會員資格------------------------------------------------------------------100
（一）創立時期---------------------------------------------------------------------------101
（二）一九四五年至一九五五年冷戰時期------------------------------------------103
（三）去殖民化時期與小國問題------------------------------------------------------106
三、影響：聯合國憲章會員條款之國家定義擴張---------------------------------114
（一）國家定義之擴張------------------------------------------------------------------115
1.永久的人口--------------------------------------------------------------------------116
2.確定的領土--------------------------------------------------------------------------117
3.政府-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------118
4.與其他國家進行外交關係之能力-----------------------------------------------119
（二）創始會員之國家資格------------------------------------------------------------120
（三）國家資格與去殖民化------------------------------------------------------------122
（四）國家資格與分裂國家------------------------------------------------------------124
四、評析------------------------------------------------------------------------------------125
第四節 南斯拉夫與蘇聯解體後之集體承認實踐：以歐盟共同合作政策為核心------------------------------------------------------127
一、東歐與蘇聯之新國家承認指導方針宣言---------------------------------------128
二、南斯拉夫宣言------------------------------------------------------------------------129
三、評析------------------------------------------------------------------------------------133
第五節 小結---------------------------------------------------------------------------------133

第五章 國際聯盟之集體不承認實踐------------------------------------------135
第一節 前言--------------------------------------------------------------------------------137
第二節 集體不承認之歷史發展--------------------------------------------------------138
二、 非正統之君主----------------------------------------------------------------------139
二、不合憲之政府----------------------------------------------------------------------140
三、強迫性之領土取得----------------------------------------------------------------147
第三節 國際聯盟之集體不承認實踐--------------------------------------------------152
一、滿洲國事件以前之實踐----------------------------------------------------------153
二、滿洲國事件時期之實踐----------------------------------------------------------156
（一）滿洲國事件：史汀生照會與國際聯盟決議-------------------------------156
（二）史汀生原則之適用範圍：學說見解----------------------------------------159
1.狹義解釋者------------------------------------------------------------------------160
(1) Hersch Lauterpacht------------------------------------------------------------160
(2) 陳體強--------------------------------------------------------------------------161
(3) D. P. O’Connell----------------------------------------------------------------161
(4) J.G. Starke/I.A. Shearer-------------------------------------------------------161
2.廣義解釋者------------------------------------------------------------------------161
(1) John Dugard--------------------------------------------------------------------161
(2) Thomas D. Grant--------------------------------------------------------------163
(3) 林朝山-------------------------------------------------------------------------163
(4) 俞寬賜-------------------------------------------------------------------------164
(5) 王鐵崖-------------------------------------------------------------------------164
3.評析--------------------------------------------------------------------------------165
三、滿洲國事件以後之實踐：義大利侵略衣索比亞危機事件---------------166
第四節 小結-------------------------------------------------------------------------------169

第六章 聯合國之集體不承認實踐----------------------------------------------171
第一節 前言--------------------------------------------------------------------------------173
第二節 聯合國之不承認規範-----------------------------------------------------------174
第三節 集體不承認之學說見解--------------------------------------------------------177
一、學說見解----------------------------------------------------------------------------177
（一）James Crawford------------------------------------------------------------------177
（二）Ian Brownlie----------------------------------------------------------------------178
（三）Werner Meng---------------------------------------------------------------------178
（四）Jochen Abr. Frowein-------------------------------------------------------------179
（五）P. K. Menon-----------------------------------------------------------------------179
（六）李子文-----------------------------------------------------------------------------179
（七）俞寬賜-----------------------------------------------------------------------------180
（八）Vera Golland-Debbas------------------------------------------------------------181
（九）J.G. Starke/I.A. Shearer----------------------------------------------------------182
二、評析-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------182
第四節 聯合國之集體不承認實踐------------------------------------------------------183
一、片面宣布獨立國家之不承認案例：分離---------------------------------------183
（一）剛果之卡坦加----------------------------------------------------------------------183
（二）南羅德西亞-------------------------------------------------------------------------187
（三）南非之黑人祖國-------------------------------------------------------------------194
（四）北塞普路斯土耳其共和國-------------------------------------------------------201
（五）喬治亞之阿布卡吉亞-------------------------------------------------------------208
二、領土取得之不承認案例-------------------------------------------------------------215
（一）以色列併吞東耶路撒冷- --------------------------------------------------------215
（二）以色列併吞戈蘭高地- -----------------------------------------------------------219
（三）印尼併吞東帝汶-------------------------------------------------------------------220
（四）伊拉克併吞科威特----------------------------------------------------------------224
三、非法佔領管理行為之不承認案例-------------------------------------------------228
（一）南非非法管理西南非或納米比亞----------------------------------------------228
（二）以色列在巴勒斯坦佔領地非法建造圍牆-------------------------------------232
四、評析-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------233
第五節 聯合國以外之不承認實踐-------------------------------------------------------236
一、片面宣布獨立國家之不承認案例：分離----------------------------------------238
（一）奈及利亞之比亞法----------------------------------------------------------------238
（二）俄羅斯之車臣----------------------------------------------------------------------243
（三）塞爾維亞與蒙特尼哥羅之科索沃----------------------------------------------248
（四）索馬利亞之索馬利蘭------------------------------------------------------------259
（五）中東地區之庫德族人/庫德斯坦-----------------------------------------------263
（六）丹麥之法羅群島------------------------------------------------------------------270
（七）波士尼亞與赫塞哥維納之塞巴斯卡共和國---------------------------------271
（八）加拿大之魁北克------------------------------------------------------------------274
（九）克羅埃西亞之塞爾維亞克拉吉納共和國------------------------------------276
（十）亞塞拜然之納哥爾尼卡拉巴克------------------------------------------------283
二、評析------------------------------------------------------------------------------------288
第六節 小結---------------------------------------------------------------------------------288

第七章 國家不承認之個案研究---------------------------------------------------293
第一節 北塞普路斯土耳其共和國-------------------------------------------------------299
一、前言-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------299
二、塞普路斯之背景----------------------------------------------------------------------301
（一）共和國之建立與失敗-------------------------------------------------------------302
（二）土耳其之入侵----------------------------------------------------------------------309
1. 入侵過程-----------------------------------------------------------------------------310
2. 入侵理由-----------------------------------------------------------------------------311
（三）致力再統一與現狀----------------------------------------------------------------312
三、國際組織之不承認政策-------------------------------------------------------------316
（一）聯合國-------------------------------------------------------------------------------316
（二）歐洲理事會-------------------------------------------------------------------------318
1. 政治機關----------------------------------------------------------------------------318
2. 司法機關----------------------------------------------------------------------------319
(1) 歐洲人權委員會------------------------------------------------------------------319
(2) 歐洲人權法院---------------------------------------------------------------------321
（三）歐洲聯盟----------------------------------------------------------------------------324
1. 政治機關-------------------------------------------------------------------------------324
2. 司法機關-------------------------------------------------------------------------------325
（四）不結盟運動-------------------------------------------------------------------------327
（五）大英國協----------------------------------------------------------------------------327
四、主要國家之不承認政策-------------------------------------------------------------328
（一）英國----------------------------------------------------------------------------------328
（二）美國----------------------------------------------------------------------------------330
（三）希臘與塞普路斯共和國----------------------------------------------------------333
1. 非法實體---------------------------------------------------------------------------333
2. 外交杯葛---------------------------------------------------------------------------334
五、國家不承認義務----------------------------------------------------------------------334
六、小結-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------338
第二節 車臣----------------------------------------------------------------------------------340
一、前言-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------340
二、車俄衝突歷程-------------------------------------------------------------------------341
（一）背景----------------------------------------------------------------------------------341
1. 地理人情--------------------------------------------------------------------------341
2. 俄國征服車臣--------------------------------------------------------------------344
（二）現況發展--------------------------------------------------------------------------345
三、車俄領土爭議-----------------------------------------------------------------------352
（一）時效之領土取得-----------------------------------------------------------------353
1. 時效---------------------------------------------------------------------------------353
2. 俄羅斯對車臣領土之時效取得------------------------------------------------354
(1) 持續時間------------------------------------------------------------------------355
(2) 利害關係請求者的抗議------------------------------------------------------357
(3) 第三國的抗議------------------------------------------------------------------358
（二）武力取得領土之合法性--------------------------------------------------------359
1. 現代拒絕使用武力取得領土---------------------------------------------------360
2. 使用武力取得領土之早期觀點與時際法------------------------------------361
四、車臣自決權--------------------------------------------------------------------------366
（一）自決權概念-----------------------------------------------------------------------366
（二）車臣自決權之範圍--------------------------------------------------------------369
（三）車臣自決權之效力--------------------------------------------------------------371
1. 自決權與領土完整之競合關係------------------------------------------------371
2. 主要國家之觀點------------------------------------------------------------------375
(1) 法國外交部長之觀點----------------------------------------------------------375
(2) 英國政府之觀點----------------------------------------------------------------375
(3) 美國國務院之觀點-------------------------------------------------------------375
(4) 中國(PRC)之觀點---------------------------------------------------------------375
3. 去殖民化過程之轉變-------------------------------------------------------------376
五、國際社會對車臣獨立運動之回應------------------------------------------------378
（一）車臣獨立運動---------------------------------------------------------------------378
1. 片面宣布獨立----------------------------------------------------------------------378
2. 武力使用----------------------------------------------------------------------------379
3. 少數族群待遇----------------------------------------------------------------------380
（二）國際社會之回應----------------------------------------------------------------380
六、小結------------------------------------------------------------------------------------383
第三節 比亞法------------------------------------------------------------------------------383
一、前言------------------------------------------------------------------------------------383
二、比亞法之獨立運動------------------------------------------------------------------385
（一）背景--------------------------------------------------------------------------------385
1. 奈及利亞之建立----------------------------------------------------------------385
2. 奈及利亞之政治----------------------------------------------------------------386
3. 第一次軍事政變----------------------------------------------------------------388
4. 第二次軍事政變---------------------------------------------------------------389
（二）獨立與承認----------------------------------------------------------------------390
1. 片面宣布獨立------------------------------------------------------------------390
2. 國家承認------------------------------------------------------------------------391
（三）失敗-------------------------------------------------------------------------------392
三、比亞法之自決權--------------------------------------------------------------------393
四、比亞法之國際承認爭議-----------------------------------------------------------393
（一）國家構成要素-------------------------------------------------------------------393
（二）國際組織之立場----------------------------------------------------------------397
1. 非洲聯盟------------------------------------------------------------------------397
2. 聯合國---------------------------------------------------------------------------397
（三）承認國之態度-------------------------------------------------------------------398
1. 承認國---------------------------------------------------------------------------398
2. 評析------------------------------------------------------------------------------401
（四）承認之效力----------------------------------------------------------------------402
五、小結------------------------------------------------------------------------------------405
第四節 索馬利蘭---------------------------------------------------------------------------406
一、前言------------------------------------------------------------------------------------406
二、索馬利蘭之歷史與獨立------------------------------------------------------------409
（一）殖民地時代----------------------------------------------------------------------409
（二）一九六○年去殖民化----------------------------------------------------------410
（三）索馬利亞內戰之影響----------------------------------------------------------412
（四）一九九一年宣佈獨立----------------------------------------------------------412
（五）內戰爆發-------------------------------------------------------------------------415
（六）現況-------------------------------------------------------------------------------417
1. 索馬利蘭內部之情勢---------------------------------------------------------418
2. 索馬利蘭之地位---------------------------------------------------------------421
三、索馬利蘭之分離主張--------------------------------------------------------------423
（一）歷史上權利-----------------------------------------------------------------------424
（二）自決權-----------------------------------------------------------------------------427
1. 殖民地自決權-------------------------------------------------------------------428
2. 現代自決權----------------------------------------------------------------------429
（三）人權侵害--------------------------------------------------------------------------431
（四）評析--------------------------------------------------------------------------------432
四、索馬利蘭不被承認之因素----------------------------------------------------------433
（一）國家資格之標準-----------------------------------------------------------------434
（二）不被承認之獨立-----------------------------------------------------------------435
（三）不承認之因素--------------------------------------------------------------------437
1. 歷史因素-------------------------------------------------------------------------438
2. 區域因素-------------------------------------------------------------------------438
3. 國際因素-------------------------------------------------------------------------441
五、索馬利蘭不被承認之影響---------------------------------------------------------444
（一）承認法之適用--------------------------------------------------------------------444
（二）不承認之影響--------------------------------------------------------------------446
1. 內部影響-------------------------------------------------------------------------447
2. 外部與國際影響----------------------------------------------------------------447
六、小結------------------------------------------------------------------------------------448
第五節 庫德斯坦--------------------------------------------------------------------------449
一、前言-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------450
二、庫德族之背景-----------------------------------------------------------------------451
（一）地理------------------------------------------------------------------------------452
（二）氣候------------------------------------------------------------------------------452
（三）人口------------------------------------------------------------------------------453
（四）經濟------------------------------------------------------------------------------454
三、庫德族人在相關國家境內之地位-----------------------------------------------455
（一）土耳其---------------------------------------------------------------------------456
（二）伊拉克---------------------------------------------------------------------------461
（三）伊朗------------------------------------------------------------------------------465
（四）敘利亞---------------------------------------------------------------------------466
（五）黎巴嫩---------------------------------------------------------------------------467
（六）蘇聯------------------------------------------------------------------------------467
四、庫德族人之國際法地位-----------------------------------------------------------467
（一）庫德族人之分離運動----------------------------------------------------------467
（二）庫德族人之自決權-------------------------------------------------------------468
（三）庫德族人之憲政整合----------------------------------------------------------472
五、小結------------------------------------------------------------------------------------474
第六節 南非黑人祖國與班圖斯坦-----------------------------------------------------475
一、前言-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------476
二、班圖斯坦政策之起源--------------------------------------------------------------478
三、實行方法：剝奪國籍與建立國家-----------------------------------------------479
四、班圖斯坦之國際法地位-----------------------------------------------------------480
（一）聯合國-----------------------------------------------------------------------------480
（二）前非洲團結組織-----------------------------------------------------------------483
（三）內國法院判決--------------------------------------------------------------------483
（四）評析--------------------------------------------------------------------------------484
五、班圖斯坦制度之廢除--------------------------------------------------------------485
六、小結-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------487
第七節 台灣--------------------------------------------------------------------------------490
一、台灣之歷史與發展------------------------------------------------------------------490
二、國際組織與他國之實踐------------------------------------------------------------495
（一）國際組織之實踐-----------------------------------------------------------------495
1.聯合國及其專門機構------------------------------------------------------------495
2.亞洲開發銀行：「中國台北」-------------------------------------------------496
3.世界貿易組織：「台澎金馬獨立關稅領域」與「中華台北」-----------498
4.國際魚類保育組織：「捕魚實體」-------------------------------------------499
（二）他國之實踐-----------------------------------------------------------------------500
1.美國實踐：台灣關係法---------------------------------------------------------501
2.英國實踐：外國公司法---------------------------------------------------------502
3.澳洲實踐：外國公司（法律適用）法---------------------------------------503
4.他國法院實踐：司法判決------------------------------------------------------504
(1)美國法院------------------------------------------------------------------------504
(2)日本法院------------------------------------------------------------------------506
(3)加拿大法院與新加坡法院---------------------------------------------------508
三、中華人民共和國與中華民國之主張----------------------------------------------509
（一）中華人民共和國之主張--------------------------------------------------------510
1.一九九三年台灣問題與中國統一白皮書------------------------------------510
2.二○○○年一個中國的原則與台灣問題白皮書---------------------------520
3.二○○五年反分裂國家法------------------------------------------------------529
（二）中華民國之主張-----------------------------------------------------------------531
1.立法院決議文-----------------------------------------------------------------------531
2.陸委會新聞稿：對中共當局的最嚴厲譴責-----------------------------------532
3.中華民國(台灣)對中國制訂「反分裂國家法」之立場---------------------533
（三）台灣與中國之關係---------------------------------------------------------------537
1.台灣歸還中國-----------------------------------------------------------------------538
2.台灣地位未定論--------------------------------------------------------------------538
3.台灣移轉給中華民國政府--------------------------------------------------------539
4.評析-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------539
四、若台灣宣布獨立----------------------------------------------------------------------540
五、小結-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------542
第八節 小結---------------------------------------------------------------------------------543

第八章 國際法上不承認行為之法律意義與效果-------------------------545
第一節 前言--------------------------------------------------------------------------------547
第二節 不承認之法律意義--------------------------------------------------------------547
一、不承認之概念----------------------------------------------------------------------547
二、不承認之理由----------------------------------------------------------------------549
三、不承認之意涵----------------------------------------------------------------------549
（一）不承認之考量因素：法之安定與變動-----------------------------------549
（二）不承認之法律意涵-----------------------------------------------------------552
1. 法律地位之不承認------------------------------------------------------------553
2. 領土取得之不承認------------------------------------------------------------554
3. 不承認與條約關係------------------------------------------------------------557
（三）不承認之政治意涵-----------------------------------------------------------557
（四）評析-----------------------------------------------------------------------------559
四、不承認之哲學基礎--------------------------------------------------------------561
（一）基本問題-----------------------------------------------------------------------561
（二）自決權之發展因素-----------------------------------------------------------563
1. 民族自決權------------------------------------------------------------------563
2. 去殖民化運動之演變------------------------------------------------------569
3. 新國家獨立之態樣---------------------------------------------------------572
(1)非自治領土與殖民地之獨立--------------------------------------------573
(2)非殖民地領土之獨立-----------------------------------------------------576
(3)企圖分離國家之獨立-----------------------------------------------------576
（三）評析-----------------------------------------------------------------------------577
第三節 不承認之發展：史汀生不承認原則----------------------------------------578
一、歷史背景--------------------------------------------------------------------------578
二、史汀生照會之宣布--------------------------------------------------------------580
三、史汀生原則之接受與修正-----------------------------------------------------581
第四節 不承認之義務-------------------------------------------------------------------584
一、國際實踐--------------------------------------------------------------------------585
二、學說見解：國際法上有無不承認義務？-----------------------------------586
（一）肯定說--------------------------------------------------------------------------586
1. Ian Brownlie----------------------------------------------------------------------586
2. Jochen Abr. Frowein-----------------------------------------------------------587
3.王鐵崖----------------------------------------------------------------------------587
4.丘宏達----------------------------------------------------------------------------587
5. John Dugard---------------------------------------------------------------------588
6. James Crawford-----------------------------------------------------------------588
7. Vera Gowlland-Debbas---------------------------------------------------------589
8.陳體強----------------------------------------------------------------------------589
9.林朝山----------------------------------------------------------------------------589
10. J.G. Starke/I.A. Shearer-------------------------------------------------------590
（二）否定說-------------------------------------------------------------------------590
1.李子文-----------------------------------------------------------------------------590
2.俞寬賜-----------------------------------------------------------------------------591
（三）評析----------------------------------------------------------------------------591
三、不承認與強行法之關係-------------------------------------------------------592
第五節 不承認之國際法與國內法效果---------------------------------------------595
一、不承認之國際法效果----------------------------------------------------------595
二、不承認之國內法效果----------------------------------------------------------596
第六節 小結------------------------------------------------------------------------------599

第九章 結論----------------------------------------------------------------------------601
一、國際法上之承認--------------------------------------------------------------------603
（一）承認理論--------------------------------------------------------------------------603
（二）承認實踐--------------------------------------------------------------------------603
（三）聯合國之集體承認實踐--------------------------------------------------------604
二、國際法上之不承認-----------------------------------------------------------------605
（一）不承認行為-----------------------------------------------------------------------605
（二）聯合國之集體不承認實踐-----------------------------------------------------605
（三）國際習慣法上之不承認義務--------------------------------------------------607
三、不承認原則及其案例適用--------------------------------------------------------608
（一）橫向：不承認原則所包括的不承認原因-----------------------------------609
（二）縱向：不承認原則之案例適用-----------------------------------------------609

參考文獻----------------------------------------------------------------------------------611
圖表：
圖1：卡坦加地圖-------------------------------------------------------------------------186
圖2：辛巴威地圖-------------------------------------------------------------------------193
圖3：南非黑人祖國地圖--------------------------------------------------------

參考文獻 (Bibliography)

目 次 (Content)

一、書籍 (Books) -------------------------------------------------------------------613

（一）英文書籍 (English Books) ----------------------------------------------------613

（二）法文書籍 (French Books) -----------------------------------------------------633

（三）日文書籍 (Japanese Books) ---------------------------------------------------634

（四）中文書籍 (Chinese Books) ----------------------------------------------------634

二、文章 (Articles) -----------------------------------------------------------------635

（一）英文文章 (English Articles) --------------------------------------------------635

（二）法文文章 (French Articles) ---------------------------------------------------664

（三）中文文章 (Chinese Articles) --------------------------------------------------666

一、書籍 (Books)

（一）英文書籍 (English Books)
Africa Watch, Somalia: A Government at War with its own People, New York: Africa Watch Committee, 1990.
Ahmed, Mohammed M.A. and Gunter, Michael M., Kurdish Exodus: From Internal Displacement to Diaspora, Sharon MA: Ahmed Foundation for Kurdish Studies, 2002.
Akehurst, Michael, A Modern Introduction to International Law, 2nd ed., London: Allen and Unwin, 1970, 1971.
Alger, Chadwick F., The Future of the United Nations System: Potential for the Twenty-First Century, New York: United Nations University Press, 1998.
Allworth, Edward, Central Asia: A Century of Russian Rule, New York: Columbia University Press, 1967.
Allworth, Edward, Central Asia: 120 Years of Russian Rule, Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1989.
Arend, Anthony Clark and Beck, Robert J., International Law and the Use of Force, New York: Routledge, 1993.
Aust, Anthony, Modern Treaty Law and Practice, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Baddeley, John F., The Russian Conquest of the Caucasus, Richmond, Surrey, England: Curzon Press, 1999.
Bailey, Sydney Dawson and Daws, Sam, The Procedure of the UN Security Council, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 3rd ed., 1998.
Baty, Thomas, The Canons of International Law, London: J. Murray, 1930.
Bayefsky, Anne F., Self-Determination in International Law: Quebec and Lessons Learned: Legal Opinions, The Hague: Kluwer Academic, 2000.
Bederman, David J., International Law in Antiquity, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
Bellamy, Alex J., Kosovo and International Society, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.
Belt, Guillermo, The Organization of American States: An Introduction, Washington, D.C., June 2002, <http://www.educoas.org/Portal/docs/Belt_Paper_rev.pdf>（Lastly saw Dec. 10, 2005）.
Bennigsen, Alexandre and Wimbush, S. Enders, Mystics and Commissars: Sufism in the Soviet Union, Berkeley: Univ. of California Press, 1985.
Berat, Lynn, Walvis Bay: Decolonization and International Law, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990.
Bethlehem, Daniel L., The Kuwait Crisis: Sanctions and Their Economic Consequences, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
Bishop, Jr., William W., International Law: Cases and Materials, Boston: Little Brown, 3rd ed., 1971.
Blay, Sam, and Piotrowicz, Ryszard and Tsamenyi, B. Martin, Public International Law: An Australian Perspective, Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Blix, H, Treaty-Making Power, London: Stevens, 1960.
Borg, Dorothy, The United States and the Far Eastern Crisis of 1933-1938: From the Manchurian Incident through the Initial Stage of the Undeclared Sino-Japanese War, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1964.
Bot, Bernard R., Nonrecognition and Treaty Relations, Leyden: A. W. Sijthoff, 1968.
Bowett, D. W., United Nations Forces: A legal Study, New York: Praeger, 1964.
Bremmer, Ian and Taras, Ray eds., Nations and Politics in the Soviet Successor States, New York, USA: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Brierly, James Leslie, The Law of Nations: An Introduction to the International Law of Peace, New York: Oxford University Press, 6th ed., 1963.
Briggs, Herbert Whittaker, The Law of Nations: Cases, Documents, and Notes, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1952,
Brownlie, Ian, International Law and the Use of Force by States, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963.
Brownlie, Ian, Principles of Public International Law, New York: Oxford University Press, 5th ed., 1998, Reprinted 2002.
Brownlie, Ian, Principles of Public International Law, New York: Oxford University Press, 6th ed., 2003.
Brownlie, Ian, Basic Documents in International Law, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 5th ed., 2002.
Brownlie, Ian & Talmon, Stefan & Goodwin-Gill, Guy S., The Reality of International Law: Essays in Honour of Ian Brownlie, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Buchheit, Lee C., Secession: The Legitimacy of Self-Determination, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978.
Buckley, William J., Kosovo: Contending Voices on Balkan Interventions, Michigan: William B.E. Publishing CO., 2000.
Calotychos, Vangelis, Cyprus and Its People: Nation, Identity, and Experience in an Unimaginable Community, 1955-1997, Boulder, Co.: Westview Press, 1998.
Cassese, Antonio, International law, New York: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Cassese, Antonio, Self-Determination of Peoples: A Legal Reappraisal, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
Cassese Antonio, ed., Current Problems of International Law: Essays on UN Law and the Law of Armed Conflict, Milan: Dott. A. Giuffre, 1975.
Castellino, Joshua, International Law and Self-Determination: The Interplay of the Politics of Territorial Possession with Formulations of Post-Colonial ‘National’ Identity, London: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 2001.
Catholic Institute for International Relations and International Platform of Jurists for East Timor eds., International Law and the Question of East Timor, London: Catholic Institute for International Relations, 1995.
Cattan, Henry, Jerusalem, London: Croom Helm, 1981.
Chaliand, Gerard, A People without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan, New York: Olive Branch Press, 1993.
Charlton, Michael, The Last Colony in Africa: Diplomacy and the Independence of Rhodesia, Oxford: Basil Blackwell Publishers, 1990.
Chen, Ti-Chiang, The International Law of Recognition: with Special Reference to Practice in Great Britain and the United States, London: Stevens & Sons Ltd., 1951.
Chiang, Huang-Chih, The International Legal Status of Taiwan, Queen Mary and Westfield College Department of Laws, Ph.D. thesis, 1996.
Chinese National Welfare Society in America, The Shantung Question, A Statement of China’s Claims together with important Documents submitted to the Peace Conference in Paris, August 1, 1919.
Chomsky, Noam, The New Military Humanism: Lessons from Kosovo, Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press, 1999.
Chrysostomides, Kypros, The Republic of Cyprus: A Study in International Law, The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2000.
Clute, Robert Eugene, The International Legal Status of Austria 1938-1955, The Hague: M. Nijhoff, 1962.
Cohen, Jerome Alan, China’s Practice of International Law, Massachusetts: Harrard University Press, 1972.
Collins Jr., Edward, International Law in A Changing World: Cases, Documents, and Reading, New York: Random House, Inc., 1970.
Conforti, Benedtto, The Law and Practice of the United Nations, The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2nd Revised ed., 2000.
Conquest, Robert, The Nation Killers: The Soviet Deportation of Nationalities, New York: Macmillan, 1970.
Coppieters, Bruno and Nodia, Ghia and Anchabadze, Yuri, Georgians and Abkhazians: The Search for a Peace Settlement, 1998, see <http://poli.vub.ac.be/publi/Georgians/>(last saw August 26, 2006).
Craig, Paul and de Búrca, Gráinne, EU Law: Text, Cases, and Materials, New York: Oxford University Press, 3rd ed., 2003.
Crawford, James, The Creation of States in International Law, New York: Oxford University Press, 2nd ed., 2006.
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Shaw, Malcolm N., Title to Territory in Africa: International Legal Issues, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986.
Shearer, I. A., Starke’s International Law, London: Butterworth & Co. Ltd., 11th ed., 1994.
Shen, Mo, Japan in Manchuria : an analytical study of treatise and documents, Manila: Grace Trading Co., Inc., 1960.
Shewmaker, Kenneth E., The Papers of Daniel Webster: Diplomatic Papers Volume 1, 1841–1843, University Press of New England, 1983.
Short, Martin and McDermott, Anthony, The Kurds, London: Minority Rights Group Report, 1975.
Simma, Bruno, The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary, New York: Oxford University Press, 2nd ed., 2002.
Simma, Bruno, The Charter of the United Nations: A Commentary, New York: Oxford University Press, 1994.
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Sinclair, Ian, The Vienna Convention of the Law of Treaties, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2nd ed., 1984.
Singh, Gurharpal, Ethnic Conflict in India: A Case-Study of Punjab, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.
Singh, Gurharpal and Talbot, Ian, Region and Partition: Bengal, Punjab and the Partition of the Subcontinent, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Slonim, Solomon, South West Africa and the United Nations: An International Mandate in Dispute, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973.
Smeets, Rieks H.J. and Wesselink, Egbert G. CH., Chechnya: One Year of War—A Pax Christi International Report, 11 December 1995.
Smith, David Marshall, Apartheid in South Africa, New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Smith, H. A., Great Britain and the Law of Nations: A Selection of Documents Illustrating the Views of the Government in the United Kingdom upon Matters of International Law, London: P. S. King, 1932.
Smith Jr, Warren W., Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1998.
Smith, Vincent Arthur, The Oxford History of India, 3rd ed., Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961.
Sohn, Louis B., Cases on United Nations Law, Brooklyn: The Foundation Press, Inc., 1967.
Solsten, Eric, Cyprus: A Country Study, U.S.: Claitor’s Law Books and Publishing Division, 4th ed., 1993.
Sonyel, Salahi R., Cyprus: The Destruction of a Republic: British Documents 1960-1965, Cambridgeshire: Eothen Press, 1997.
Sorensen, Max, Manual of Public International Law, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1968.
South Africa Department of Foreign Affairs, South West Africa Advisory Opinion 1971: A Study in International Adjudication, Pretoria: Dept. of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of South Africa, 1972.
South Africa Department of Foreign Affairs, The Transkei and the Case for Separate Development, London: South African Embassy, 1963.
Stansfield, Gareth R. V., Iraqi Kurdistan: Political Development and Emergent Democracy, London: Routledge, 2003.
Stavrinides, Zenon, The Cyprus Conflict: National Identity and Statehood, Nicosia: Stavrinides, 1976.
Stefanidis, Ioannis D., Isle of Discord: Nationalism, Imperialism and the Making of the Cyprus Problem, New York: New York University Press, 1999.
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Steiner, Henry J. and Vagts, Detlev F., and Koh, Harold Hongju, Transnational Legal Problems: Materials and Text, The Foundation Press, Inc., 4th ed., New York: Westbury, 1994.
Stephens, Robert Henry, Cyprus: a Place of Arms: Power Politics and Ethnic Conflict in Eastern Mediterranean, London: Pall Mall Press, 1966.
Stimson, Henry L., The Far Eastern Crisis, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1936.
Stone, Julius, Israel and Palestine: Assault on the Law of Nations, Baltimore, Maryland, USA: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981.
Strack, Harry R., Sanctions: The Case of Rhodesia, Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1978.
Stremlau, John J., The international Politics of the Nigerian Civil War, 1967-1970, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1977.
Svarlien, Oscar, An Introduction to the Law of Nations, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1955.
Swift, Richard N., International Law: Current and Classic, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1969.
Sztucki, Jerzy, Jus Cogens and The Vienna Convention of the Law of Treaties: A Critical Appraisal, Wien, New York: Springer-Verlog, 1974.
Talal, Hassan Bin, Palestinian Self-Determination: A Study of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, New York: Quartet Books, 1981.
Talmon, Stefan, Recognition of Governments in International Law: With Particular Reference to Government in Exile, Oxford: Claredon Press, 1998.
Talmon, Stefan, Recognition in International Law: A Bibliography, The Hague: Kluwer Law International, 2000.
Temperley, H. W. V., A History of the Peace Conference of Paris, London: Henry Frowde, Hodder and Stoughton, vol. 3, 1920.
The Independent International Commission on Kosovo, The Kosovo Report: Conflict, International Response, Lessons Learned, New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
The Economist Intelligence Unit, Country Profile 1991-1992: Somalia, London: Economist, 2000.
The International Secretary, Institute of Pacific Relations-Inquiry Series ed., Legal Problems in the Far Eastern Conflict, New York: The Haddon Craftsmen, Inc., 1941, Part I-The Legal Background in the Far East, by Quincy Wright; Part II-The Problem of Non-Recognition, by H. Lauterpacht and Edwin M. Borchard and Phoebe Morrison.
Thornberry, Patrick, International Law and the Rights of Minorities, New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Tillotson, John and Foster, Nigel, Text, Cases and Materials on European Union Law, London: Cavendish Publishing Limited, 4th ed., 2003.
Tornaritis, Criton G., Cyprus and its Constitution and other Legal Problems, 2nd ed., 1980, in <http://www.kypros.org/Documents/Tornaritis/docs/nicosia.html>(last saw 7 April 2005).
Tripathi, Manjul Rani, India's Foreign Policy on Diplomatic Recognition of States and Governments, Delhi, India: B. R. Publishing Corporation, 1990.
Tung, William L., International Law in an Organizing World, New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1968.
Ulam, Adam Bruno, Expansion and Coexistence: The History of Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917-67, New York: Praeger, 1968.
United Nations, Basic Facts about the United Nations, New York: UN Dept of Public Information, 1984.
United Nations, Basic Facts about the United Nations, New York: UN Dept of Public Information, 1998.
United Nations, Basic Facts about the United Nations, New York: UN Dept of Public Information, 2004.
United Nations Department of Political & Security Council Affairs, Repertoire of the Practice of the Security Council, 1946-1951, New York: Dept. of Political and Security Council Affairs, 1954.
United Nations, Everyone’s United Nations, New York: UN Department of Public Information, 9th ed., 1979.
United States, Congress, Senate, Committee on Foreign Relations, Credentials Considerations in the United Nations General Assembly: The Process and Its Role, 98th Cong., 1st Session, No. 98-143 (Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1983), in <http://www.lib.ncsu.edu/stacks/senatebibs/098ptt.htm>.
United States Department of State Dispatch, 1990 Human Rights Report: Somalia, February 1, 1991.
van Bruinessen, Martin, Agha, Shaikh and State: The Social and Political Structures of Kurdistan, London: Zed Books, 1992.
Veenhoven, Ruut, Case Studies on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms: A World Survey, vol. 2, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1975.
Vickers, Miranda, Between Serb and Albanian: A History of Kosovo, New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.
Vitas, Robert A., The United States and Lithuania: The Stimson Doctrine of Non-recognition, New York: Praeger, 1990.
Waldren, Stephen, Lithuania: The Impact of the Stimson Doctrine, Sandy Bay, Tas.: T.U.U. Lithuanian Studies Society, 1993.
Wallace, Rebecca M.M., International Law, 4th ed., London: Sweet & Maxwell, 2002.
Walzer, Michael, Just and Unjust Wars, New York: Basic Books, 3rd ed., 2000.
Webster, Daniel, British and Foreign State Papers 1841-1842, vol. 30, 1858.
Weekes, Richard V., Muslim Peoples: A World Ethnographic Survey, Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1984.
Weller, Marc, Iraq and Kuwait: The Hostilities and their Aftermath, Cambridge: Grotius Publications, 1993.
Whitaker, Urban G.., Politics and Power: A Text in International Law, New York: Harper & Row, 1964.
White, Nigel D., The United Nations System: Toward International Justice, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2002.
Whiteman, Marjorie M., Digest of International Law, vol. 2, Washington: Washington D.C.: Department of State Publication, 1963.
Williams, Sir John Fischer, Aspects of Modern International Law, London: Oxford University Press, 1939.
Williams, Sharon Anne and de Mestral, Armand L.C., An Introduction to International Law: Chiefly as Interpreted and Applied in Canada, Toronto: Butterworths, 2nd ed.,1987.
Williams, Sharon Anne, An Introduction to International Law: Chiefly as Interpreted and Adopted in Canada, Toronto: Butterworths, 1979.
Willoughby, Westel W., The Sino-Japanese controversy and the League of Nations, New York: Greenwood Press, 1968.
Willoughby, Westel W., Foreign Rights and Interests in China, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, vol. 27, 1927.
Wolpert, Stanley A., A New History of India, 4th ed., New York: Oxford University Press, 1993.
Wright, John F. R. and Goldenberg, Suzanne and Schofield, Richard eds., Transcaucasian Boundaries, New York: Palgrave, 1995.
Wright, Quincy and Lauterpacht, Hersch and Borchard, Edwin and Morrison Phoebe, eds., Legal Problems in the Far Eastern Conflict, New York: International Secretariat, Institute of Pacific Relations, 1941.
Young, Crawford, Politics in the Congo: Decolonization and Independence, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1965.
Youngs, Tim, The Conflict in Chechnya, International Affairs and Defence Section, House of Commons Library, Research Paper 00/04, 7 February 2000.
Zacklin, Ralph, The United Nations and Rhodesia: A Study in International Law, New York: Praeger, 1974.
Zimmern, Alfred Eckhard, The League of Nations and the Rule of Law, 1918-1935, New York: Russell & Russell, 1969.

（二）法文書籍 (French Books)
Charles de Visscher, Théories et Réalités en Droit International Public, Paris: Editions A. Pedone, 4E Éd., 1960.
Alphonse Rivier, Principes du Droit des Gens, vol. 1, Paris: A. Rousseau, 1896.
Biafra, Rhodesie du Sud, Paris: A. Colin, 1971.
Carreau, Dominique, Droit International, Paris: Pedone, 4e ed., 1994, p.203.
Charpentier, Jean, La Reconnaissance Internationale et l’Evolution du Droit des Gens, Paris: Pedone, 1956.
Combacau, Jean & Sur, Serqe, Droit International Public, Paris: Montchrestien, 4E Éd., 1999.
de Saint-Pierre, Abbé, Projet pour Rendre la Paix Perpetuelle en Europe (1713), Paris, France: Garnier, 1981.
Dupuy, Pierre-Marie, Droit International Public, 5E éd., Paris: Dalloz, 2000.
Rousseau, Charles, Droit International Public, Paris: Editions Sirey, Tome I-Introduction et Sources, 1970.
Rousseau, Charles, Droit International Public, Paris: Eitions Sirey, Tome II-Les Société Internationale, 1974.
Rousseau, Charles, Droit International Public, Paris: Editions Sirey, Tome III-Les Relations Internationales, 1977.
Ruzié, David, Droit International Public, Paris: Dalloz, 15e éd., 2000.
Salmon, Jean J. A., La reconnaissance d’Etat: Quatre Cas: Mandchoukouo, Katanga,
Verhoeven, Joe, La Reconnaissance Internationale dans la Pratique Contemporaine : Les Relations Publiques Internationales, Paris: Editions A. Pedone, 1975.

（三）日文書籍 (Japanese Books)
國際法事例研究會，國交再開、政府承認，東京：慶應通信，昭和63年(西元1988年)5月10日，第1版第1刷。
經塚作太郎，圖解國際公法，東京：立花書房，平成3年(西元1977年)6月20日，補訂第4刷。
納家政嗣，20世紀における國家主權の変容，日本と國際法の100年，第1卷，三省堂，日本，第一刷發行，2001年10月20日。

（四）中文書籍 (Chinese Books)
中國政法大學國際法教研室編，國際公法案例評析，北京：中國政法大學出版社，第1版，1995年。
王鐵崖，國際法，北京市：法律出版社，第1版，1995年。
王鐵崖、王人傑，國際法，台北市：五南圖書出版，初版，1992年。
王鐵崖、陳體強譯，勞特派特修訂，奧本海國際法，北京市：商務印書館，1981年。
巨克毅，美伊戰後伊拉克政治發展動向，中興大學全球和平與戰略研究中心，轉引自<http://cgpss.nchu.edu.tw/modules/wfsection/article.php?articleid=81>（最後閱覽日Feb. 2, 2005）。
丘宏達，現代國際法，台北：三民書局，1995年。
台灣法協會編，主權、憲法與台灣的未來，台北：元照出版，2006年。
李子文，聯合國對南羅德西亞之制裁（一九六五年至一九七九年），台北：萬人出版社，1985年。
沈玄池、洪德欽主編，歐洲聯盟：理論與政策，台北：中央研究院歐美研究所，1998年。
沈克勤，國際法，台北：台灣學生書局，七版，1984年。
林玉佩，國際法之承認問題：日本國際法學界之理論與實例研究，臺北市：淡江大學日本研究所，碩士論文，1988年。
林德昌編，台灣非政府組織與國際社會參與，高雄：中山大學非政府組織研究中心，2003年。
馬克．馬佐爾著，劉會梁譯，巴爾幹-被誤解的歐洲火藥庫The Balkans，台北：左岸文化，2005年。
俞寬賜，國際法新論，台北：啟英文化出版，初版，2002年。
俞寬賜，從國際人權法、國際人道法及國際刑法研究個人的國際法地位問題，台北：國立編譯館，初版，2002年。
俞寬賜，新世紀國際法，台北：三民書局，1994年。
哈 特(Herbert Lionel Adolphus Hart)著，許家馨、李冠宜譯，法律的概念(The Concept of Law)，台北：商周出版，2004年。
姜皇池，國際法與台灣：歷史考察與法律評估，台北：學林文化事業，2000年。
姜皇池，國際公法導論，台北：學林文化事業，2006年。
涂懷瑩，史汀生對日本侵略中國東北之「不承認主義」，臺北縣淡水鎮 : 淡江大學美國研究所，碩士論文，2004年。
袁昌堯、張國仁著，日本簡史，台北：書林出版，1997年。
梁 西，國際組織法，武昌：武漢大學出版社，1993年。
曾令良，21世紀初的國際法與中國，武漢：武漢大學出版社，2005年。
許光建主編，聯合國憲章詮釋，太原：山西教育出版社，1999年。
許慶雄、李明峻合著，現代國際法，台北：元照出版，2001年。
陳世博，國際法上自決的理論與實際，台北：東吳法研所碩士論文，1994年。
陳治世，國際法，台北：台灣商務印書館，1992年。
陳隆志，國際法引論，台北：元照出版，1999年。
陳麗娟，歐洲共同體法導論，台北：五南書局，增訂二版，2005年。
勞特派特修訂，奧本海國際法，上、下卷，平時法，北京：商務印書館。
結構編輯群譯，龐德著，法律史解釋，台北市：結構群，1991年。
黃 異，海洋秩序與國際法，台北：學林出版，2000年。
黃偉峰，歐洲聯盟的組織與運作，台北：五南圖書出版公司，2003年。
楊永明，國際安全與國際法，台北：元照出版，2003年。
趙明義，當代國際法導論，台北：五南圖書出版， 2001年。
趙建文，國際法新論，北京：法律出版社，2001年。
潘祖蔭，國際法上承認理論與實踐之研究，台北：政大外交所碩士論文，1989年。
薛壽衡等譯，韋羅貝(Willoughby, W. W.)撰，中日糾紛與國聯，上海：商務印書館，1936年。
蘇峰華，國際法上有關國家領土取得之問題，台北：東吳法研所碩士論文，1974年。
蘇義雄，平時國際法，台北：三民書局，1991年。
饒戈平，國際組織法，北京：北京大學出版社，1996年。
謝福助，新干涉主義：科索沃案例議題研究，台北：韋伯文化，2003年。

二、文章 (Articles)

（一）英文文章 (English Articles)
A Note on “Cyprus and International Law,” published by the Turkish Foreign Policy Institute, citing from <http://www.foreignpolicy.org.tr/eng/articles/cyprus.htm>.
Abdel-Monem, Tarik, “The European Court of Human Rights: Chechnya's Last Chance?” 28 Vermont Law Review 237 (2004).
Abdullaev, Nabi, “Chechnya Ten Years Later,” 103 Current History 332 (Oct. 2004).
Ahrens, Cherylyn Brandt, “Chechnya and the Right of Self-Determination,” 42 Columbia JTL 575 (2004).
Aird, Sarah, “Kosovo: History of a Human Rights Crisis,” 6 Human Rights Brief 30 (1999).
Akehurst, Michael, “State Responsibility for the Wrongful Acts of Rebels-An Aspect of the Southern Rhodesian Problem,” 43 BYIL 49 (1968-1969).
Alexander, Klinton W., “NATO’s Intervention in Kosovo: The Legal Case for Violating Yugoslavia's National Sovereignty in the Absence of Security Council Approval,” 22 Houston JIL 403 (2000).
Alexandrowicz-Alexander, Charles Henry, “The Legal Position of Tibet,” 48 AJIL 265 (1954).
Alexandrowicz, C. H., “The Theory of Recognition in Fieri,” 34 BYIL 176 (1958).
Alexandrowicz, Charles Henry, “Comment on the Legal Position of Tibet,” Indian YBIA 172 (1956).
Alvarez, Alejandro, “Latin America and International Law,” 3 AJIL 269 (1909).
Anderson, Chandler P., “Our Policy of Non-Recognition in Central American” 25 AJIL 298 (1931).
Anderson, C. P., “The Central American Policy of Non-Recognition,” 19 AJIL 164 (1925).
Arias, Inocencio, “Humanitarian Intervention: Could the Security Council Kill the United Nations?” 23 Fordham ILJ 1005 (2000).
Anderson, Chandler P., “The Costa Rica-Panama Boundary Dispute,” 15 AJIL 236 (1921).
Ando, N., “The Recognition of Governments Reconsidered,” 28 JAIL 29 (1985).
Ashkouri, Michael, “Has United States Foreign Policy towards Libya, Iraq, and Serbia Violated Executive Order 12333: Prohibition on Assassination?” 7 New England ICLA 155 (2001).
Atrokhov, Wendy Turnoff, “The Khasavyurt Accords: Maintaining the Rule of Law and Legitimacy of Democracy in the Russian Federation amidst the Chechen Crisis,” 32 Cornell ILJ 367 (1999).
Aufricht, Hans, “Principles and Practices of Recognition by International Organizations,” 43 AJIL 679 (1949).
Baade, Hans W., “Time and Meaning: Notes on the Inter-temporal Law of Statutory Construction and Constitutional Interpretation,” 43 AJCL 319 (1995).
Baggett, Ted, “Recent Development: Human Rights Abuses in Yugoslavia: To Bring an End to Political Oppression, The International Community Should Assist in Establishing an Independent Kosovo,” 27 Georgia JICL 457 (1999).
Bailey, K., “Making International Law in the UN,” 61 Proceedings of ASIL 235 (1967).
Barsh, Russel Lawrence, “Indigenous Peoples: An Emerging Object of International Law,” 81 AJIL 369 (1986).
Baty, Thomas, “De Facto States: Sovereign Immunities,” 45 AJIL 166 (1951).
Beate, Rudolph, “International Decision: Loizidou v. Turkey (Merits),” 91 AJIL 532 (1997).
Beck, “A South African Homeland Appears in the English Court: Legitimation of the Illegitimate,” 36 ICLQ 350 (1987).
Bellocchi, Luke P., “Recent Development: Self-Determination in the Case of Chechnya,” 2 Buffalo JIL 183 (1995).
Bentwich, Norman, “Legal Aspects of the Restoration of Ethiopian Sovereignty,” 22 BYIL 275 (1945).
Berke, Elliot Stanton, “Recent Development: The Chechnya Inquiry: Constitutional Commitment or Abandonment,” 10 Emory ILR 879 (1996).
Blandy, Charles and Isby, David and Markov, Davidand and Zaloga, Steven J., “The Chechen Conflict: A Microcosm of the Russian Army’s Past, Present and Future,” Jane’s Intelligence Review: Special Report No. 11 (1996).
Blay, Kwaw Nyameke, “Self-Determination versus Territorial Integrity in Decolonization Revisited,” 25 Indian JIL 386 (1985).
Blay, S.K.N., “Self-Determination in Cyprus: The New Dimension of an Old Conflict,” 10 AYBIL. 67 (1987).
Blay, Sam, “Self-Determination: A Reassessment in Post Communist Era,” 22 Denver JILP 275 (1994).
Blix, H. M., “Contemporary Aspects of Recognition,” 130 Recueil des Cours 86 (1970-II).
Blum, Yehuda Z., “The Missing Reversioner: Reflections on the Status of Judea and Samaria,” 3 Israel Law Review 279 (1968).
Blum, Yehuda Z., “Remarks on Self-Determination: The Case of Palestine,” 82 Proceedings of ASIL 334 (1988).
Boileau, Alain E., “To the Suburbs of Baghdad: Clinton’s Extension of the Southern Iraqi No-Fly Zone,” 3 ILSA JICL 875 (1997).
Bois, Thomas and Minorsky, Vladimir, “Kurds, Kurdistan,” in The Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. 5, Leiden: Brill, 1980, pp. 438-486.
Bolton, John R., “Should We Take Global Governance Seriously?” 1 Chicago JIL 205 (2000).
Booysen, H. and Wiechers, M. and Van Wyk, D. H. and Breytenbach, W., “Comments on the Independence and Constitution of Transkei,” 2 SAYIL 1 (1976).
Borchard, Edwin, “Recognition and Non-Recognition,” 36 AJIL 108 (1940).
Borchard, Edwin, and Morrison, Phoebe, “The Doctrine of Non-Recognition,” in Quincy Wright, Hersch Lauterpacht, Edwin Borchard and Phoebe Morrison eds., Legal Problems in the Far Eastern Conflict, New York: International Secretariat, Institute of Pacific Relations, 1941, pp.157-178.
Bostian, Ida L., “Hazardous Materials and Energy: The Environmental Consequences of the Kosovo Conflict and NATO Bombing of Serbia,” 1999 Colorado JIELP 230 (2000).
Botha, Neville, “From Pimlico to Bisho: Recognition of South African National States in the Light of Carl Zeiss” 12 S.A.Y.I.L. 156 (1986/87).
Botha, Neville, “Majestas and the Independent Homelands with Particular Reference to Bophuthatswana,”14 S.A.Y.I.L. 197-208 (1988/89).
Boudin, Leonard B., “The Effects of De-recognition and Government Succession upon Locus Standi and Property Rights: The Kokario Case,” 13 Hasting ICLR 205 (1990).
Brady, Jennifer E., “The Huaorani Tribe of Ecuador: A Study in Self-Determination for Indigenous Peoples,” 10 Harvard HRJ 291 (1997).
Brilmayer, Lea, “Secession and Self-determination: A Territorial Interpretation,” 16 Yale JIL 177 (1991).
Brierly, James-Leslie, “The Meaning and Legal Effect of the Resolution of the League of Nations of March 11, 1932,” 16 BYIL 159 (1935).
Briggs, Herbert W. “Community Interest in the Emergence of New States: The Problem of Recognition,” 44 Proceedings of ASIL 169 (1950).
Briggs, Herbert W., “Non-Recognition in the Courts: The Ships of the Baltic Republics,” 37 AJIL 585 (1943).
Briggs, Herbert W., “Non-Recognition of Title by Conquest and the Limitations on the Doctrine,” 34 ASIL Proc. 72 (1940).
Briggs, Herbert W., “Recognition of States: Some Reflections on Doctrine and Practice,” 43 AJIL 113 (1949).
Brilmayer, Lea, “Secession and Self-Determination: A Territorial Interpretation,” 16 Yale Journal of International Law 177 (1991).
Brown, Bartram S., “Symposium: Final Status for Kosovo: Untying the Gordian Knot: III. Article: Human Rights, Sovereignty, and the Final Status of Kosovo,” 80 Chicago-Kent Law Review 235 (2005).
Brown, Philip Marshall, “The Effects of Recognition,” 36 AJIL 106 (1940).
Brown, Philip Marshall, “The Recognition of Israel,” 42 AJIL 620 (1948).
Brown, Philip Marshall, “The Legal Effects of Recognition,” 44 AJIL 617 (1950).
Brownlie, Ian, “Recognition in Theory and Practice,” in MacDonald, Ronald Saint John and Johnston, Douglas M., Structure and Process of International Law: Essays in Legal Philosophy, Doctrine and Theory, The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1983, pp.627-641.
Brownlie, Ian, “Recognition in Theory and Practice,” 53 BYIL 197 (1982).
Bruce, Leigh H., “Cyprus: A Last Chance,” 58 Foreign Policy 115 (1985).
Burton, Lesile A., “Kosovo: To Bomb or Not to Bomb? The Legality is the Question,” 7 Annual Survey of International & Comparative Law 49 (2001).
Butcher, Goler Teal, “The Consonance of United States Positions on International Law With Advisory Opinions of the International Court of Justice,” 30 Howard Law Journal 45 (1987).
Caplan, Lee M., “State Immunity, Human Rights, and Jus Cogens: A Critique of the Normative Hierarchy Theory,” 97 AJIL 741 (2003).
Carpenter, Gretchen, “The Independence of Venda,” 5 SAYIL 40 (1979).
Carpenter, Gretchen, “Variation on a Theme - The Independence of Ciskei,” 7 SAYIL 83 (1981).
Carroll, Anthony J. and Rajagopal, B., “The Case for the Independent Statehood of Somaliland,” 8 American University JILP 653 (1993).
Carson, Dale, “Contemporary International Law Issues: The Kosovo Question,” 2 Florida Coastal Law Journal 167 (2000).
Cassese, Antonio, “Legal Considerations on the International Status of Jerusalem,” 3 Palestine Y.I.L. 13 (1986).
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