臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

反應抑制能力是人類認知功能的一部分，代表個人立即轉換想法與調整行為去適應新情況的能力，這種適應新情況的過程通常被稱為認知控制。停止信號作業為最常被用來研究反應抑制能力之作業，可以評估抑制控制之能力，抑制所需時間愈短代表抑制控制之能力愈好。時下從事太極拳運動的人口越來越多，許多有關的研究都是從生理或心理效益的角度去探討太極拳帶來的效益，很少有文獻去了解從事太極拳運動對認知功能的影響。本研究藉由腦波的紀錄去比較從事太極拳運動的受試者與從未接觸過太極拳運動但有規律運動習慣的受試者以及沒有規律運動習慣的受試者在停止信號 (stop signal) 作業情境下腦部活化的差異。企圖瞭解太極拳運動是否有益於反應抑制的執行。故本研究目的為：一、探討太極拳組、運動組、與不運動組在執行停止訊號作業的GO反應時間與SSRT的行為資料差異，評估受試者的反應時間與抑制時間。二、以電生理的角度探討太極拳組、運動組與不運動組在執行停止訊號作業時，其主要作用皮質區的事件相關電位差異。方法：20名平常有從事太極拳運動的中老年人/中老年人（52.94+3.41歲）、20名平常有規律運動習慣的中老年人/中老年人（54.88+2.97歲）與20名平常沒有從事太極拳運動且無規律運動習慣的中老年人/中老年人（54.46+4.25歲），分成太極拳組、運動組與不運動組。實驗設計：儀器設備為Scan4.2國際10-20系統(international 10-20 system)的Neuroscan多頻道腦波儀。三組受試者配戴腦波帽進行信號停止作業，同時記錄其腦波資料與行為資料。研究結果：一、太極拳組與運動組在SSRT的表現會顯著優於不運動組。二、太極拳組在成功抑制、失敗抑制有較大的P3振幅。三、太極拳組在按鍵錯誤之後會出現較大的Pe振幅。結論：本研究發現在行為結果上，太極拳組與運動組的GO反應時間與停止信號反應時間皆快於不運動組，代表從事規律的運動有益於認知反應的執行；在腦波方面，太極拳組執行反應抑制作業時在額部投入較多資源，其中的內在神經機轉可能是太極拳組能在抑制情境下有效利用注意力資源，並且在失敗抑制的情境下，有較佳調節錯誤行為的能力，提高對不正確行為的注意、警覺。

關鍵字：太極拳、事件相關電位、停止訊號作業、抑制

The ability of response inhibition is a part of human cognitive function which represents the immediate transformation of personal idea and the ability of behavior adjustment to adapt toward new situations. This kind of situation of adaptation process for new circumstances is often referred to as cognitive control. Stop signal task is the most commonly used research method for response inhibition, and it can assess the ability to control the inhabitation; the shorter required time represents the better ability of inhibitory control. There are more and more people participate in Tai Chi Chuan, many of the studies were physiological or psychological benefits from the Tai Chi Chuan, there is little literature to learn Tai Chi Chuan affecting on cognitive functions. This study tested different brain activation in stop signal task through NeuroScanSynamps and three different subjects, which includes: subjects who participate Tai Chi Chuan,; subjects who ever participate in Tai Chi Chuan, but have regular exercise habits; and subjects who don’t have any regular exercise haibts. The aims of the present study were to determine: 1. The differences of GO reaction time, stop signal reaction time in stop signal task among Tai Chi Chuan group, exercise group and non-exercise group. 2. The differences between the ERPs data of cortex when execute the stop signal task among Tai Chi Chuan group, exercise group and non-exercise group. Methods: Twenty mid-aged adults who regularly do Tai Chi Chan (52.94+3.41 years old), twenty mid-aged adults who regularly exercise (54.88+2.97 years old) and twenty mid-aged adults who have not regularly do Tai Chi Chan and exercise (54.46+4.21 years old). Divide them into those three groups. The design of the research: the equipment is Neuroscan. Three groups of subjects performed the signal stopping examination with EEG hat; meanwhile, the brain waves information and behavior data were recorded simultaneously. Results: 1. The performance of SSRT was significant better in Tai Chi Chuan group and exercise group than the non-exercise group. 2. Tai Chi Chan group has greater P3 and amplitude in Stimulus lock, success inhibition and failure inhibition. 3. Tai Chi Chuan group has shown bigger Pe amplitude after inhibition error. Conclusions: In behavior data, Tai Chi Chuan group and exercise group show a shorter time in GO reaction time and Stop signal reaction time than non-exercise group. It Represent engaged in regular exercise benefits cognitive execution. In ERPs data, Tai Chi Chuan group performed more resources in forehead while response inhibition executed. One of the intrinsic nervous operations may invest more attention resources of Tai Chi Chuan group in inhibiting situation, and in failure of inhibition situations, there is a better ability to regulate wrongdoing and to improve the attention of the incorrect behavior and alert.

Key words: Tai Chi Chuan, event related potentials, stop signal task, inhibition

目錄
中文摘要 I
Abstract III
目錄 V
表目錄 VII
圖目錄 VIII
第壹章緒論 1
第一節、研究背景 1
第二節、研究目的 4
第三節、研究問題 4
第四節、研究假設 5
第五節、研究限制 5
第六節、名詞解釋 5
第二章、文獻探討 7
第一節、運動或身體活動對認知神經功能的影響 7
第二節、太極拳介紹 11
第三節、太極拳改善認知表現 13
第四節、反應抑制之歷程 16
第五節、總結 19
第參章研究方法與步驟 20
第一節、研究架構 20
第二節、研究對象 21
第三節、實驗儀器與工具 21
第五節、資料處理與分析 24
第四章、研究結果 26
第一節、受試者基本資料 26
第二節、行為資料 28
第三節、腦波資料 28
第四節、小總結 40
第五章、討論 41
第一節、行為結果之探討 41
第二節、事件相關電位之結果 43
第陸章、結論與建議 48
第一節、結論 48
第二節、未來建議 48
參考文獻 49


表目錄
表4-1 受試者資本資料 26
表4-2 受試者教育程度分布情形 27
表4-3 受試者運動頻率分布情形 27
表4-4 三組受試者SSRT及GO-RT表現情形 28
表4-5 三組受試者錯誤後減慢及正確抑制後反應時間表現情形 30
表4-6 三組在刺激鎖定情境下P3振幅電位變化統計摘要表 31
表4-7 刺激鎖定P3振幅混和設計三因子變異數分析摘要表 31
表4-8 三組在成功抑制情境下P3振幅電位變化統計摘要表 32
表4-9 三組在成功抑制情境P3振幅之混合設計二因子變異數分析摘要表 33
表4-10 三組在失敗抑制情境下P3振幅電位變化統計摘要表 34
表4-11 三組在失敗抑制情境下P3振幅混和設計二因子變異數分析摘要表 34
表4-12 三組在失敗抑制情境下單純主效果統計摘要表 35
表4-13 三組Pe振幅電位變化 36
表4-14 三組Pe振幅統計摘要表 37
表4-15 三組在錯誤後反應情境下單純主效果統計摘要表 37



圖目錄
圖3-1研究架構圖 21
圖3-2 Stop signal作業情境 23
圖4-1 三組受試者在GO-RT與SSRT反應時間差異情形 29
圖4-2 三組受試者錯誤後減慢及正確抑制後反應時間差異情形 30
圖4-3 三組在成功抑制情境下之P3振福腦波變化 33
圖4-4 三組在成功抑制情境下P3振福差異情形 33
圖4-5 三組在失敗抑制情境下額部P3振福變化 35
圖4-6 三組在失敗抑制情境下P3振幅差異情形 36
圖4-7 三組在錯誤反應後之額部Pe振幅變化 38
圖4-8 三組在錯誤反應後Pe振幅之差異情形 38
圖4-9 三組受試者在五種情境下200ms～600ms 之大腦皮質活化圖 39

參考文獻
洪蘭（譯）（2004）。大腦總指揮。遠流：台北市。(Goldberg, E., 2001)
李立潮、陳蓮玉、胡又喜（2005）。太極拳運動對老年人健身防病作用的機制。體育中老年人教育學刊，21（6），39-41。
林國瑞（2004）。傳統太極拳的內涵與精髓。中華神龍太極學會網站，臺北市。
http：//www.taichi.com.tw。
楊翼風、李湘屏（2007）。太極拳禪定特質的探討。體育學報，40（2），123-134。
解守德、李文英（1994）。武術初學指南。臺北市：大展。
潘孝桂、陳錦龍、洪聰敏、豐東洋（2001）。短跑選手與非運動員之聽覺選擇反應時間及事件關連電位比較。體育學報，30，323-331。
黃琮盟（2006）。跑步訓練介入後對不同反應部位及不同形式的反應時間影響之
研究。未出版之碩士論文，屏東教育大學體育學系，屏東縣。
謝維玲（譯）（2009）。運動改造大腦：IQ和EQ大進步的關鍵。野人：台北縣。(Ratey, J. J., & Hagerman, E. 2009)
藍孝勤（2001）。論太極拳運動對老人之健身，修心價值。國民體育季刊，30，50-55。
藍孝勤、邱丕相（1995）。論太極拳的修心養性價值。國術研究，2，90-96。
藍青、賴金鑫、黃美涓（1999）。太極拳對中老年人心肺功能之促進及維持效果。中華民國復健醫學會雜誌，27（2），63-69。
Abbott, R. B., Hui, K. K., Hays, R. D., Li, M. D., & Pan, T. (2007). A randomized
controlled trial of Tai Chi for tension headaches. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 4(1), 107–113.
Ainsworth, B. E., Haskell, W. L., Whitt, M. C., Irwin, M. L., Swartz, A. M., Strath, S. J., et al. (2000). Compendium of physical activities: An update of activity codes and met intensities. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32(9), 498-516.
Albinet, C. T., Boucard, G., Bouquet, C. A., & Audiffren, M. (2010). Increased heart rate variability and executive performance after aerobic training in the elderly. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 109(4), 617-624.
Band, G. P. H., van der Molen, M. W., & Logan, G. D. (2003). Horse-race model simulations of the stop-signal procedure. Acta Psychologica, 112(2), 105-142.
Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121(1), 65-94.
Band, G. P. H., & van Boxtel, G. J. M. (1999). Inhibitory motor control in stop paradigms: Review and reinterpretations of neural mechanisms. Acta Psychologica, 101, 179-211.
Botvinick, M. M. (2007). Conflict monitoring and decision making: Reconciling two perspectives on anterior cingulate function. Cognitive, Affective and Behavioral Neuroscience, 7(4), 356-366.
Bugg, J. M., DeLosh, E. L., & Clegg, B. A. (2006). Physical activity moderates time-of-day differences in older adults' working memory performance. Experimental Aging Research, 32, 431-446.
Casey, B., Galvan, A., & Hare, T. (2005). Changes in cerebral functional organization during cognitive development. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 15(2), 239-244.
Carter, C. S., & van Veen, V. (2007). Anterior cingulate cortex and conflict detection:
an update of theory and data. Cognitive, affective & behavioral neuroscience, 7(4), 367-379.
Chang, Y. K., Nien, Y. H., Tsai, C. L., & Etnier, J. L. (2010). Physical activity and cognition in older adults: The potential of Tai Chi Chuan. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 18(4), 451-472.
Colcombe, S., & Kramer, A. F. (2003). Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: A meta-analytic study. Psychological Science, 14(2), 125-130.
Colcombe, S. J., Erickson, K. I., Scalf, P. E., Kim, J. S., Prakash, R., McAuley, E., et al. (2006). Aerobic exercise training increases brain volume in aging humans. Journals of Gerontology Series: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 61(11), 1166-1170.
Colcombe, S. J., Kramer, A. F., McAuley, E., Erickson, K. I., & Scalf, P. (2004). Neurocognitive aging and cardiovascular fitness - Recent findings and future directions. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 24(1), 9-14.
Craig, C. L., Marshall, A. L., Sjostrom, M., Bauman, A. E., Booth, M. L., Ainsworth, B. E., et al. (2003). International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 35(8), 1381-1395.
Davis, C. L., Tomporowski, P. D., Boyle, C. A., Waller, J. L., Miller, P. H., Naglieri, J. A., et al. (2007). Effects of aerobic exercise on overweight children's cognitive functioning: A randomized controlled trial. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 78(5), 510-519.
Davies, P. L., Segalowitz, S. J., Dywan, J., & Pailing, P. E. (2001). Error-negativity and positivity as they relate to other ERP indices of attentional control and stimulus processing. Biological Psychology, 56, 191.206.
Dimoska, A., Johnstone, S. J., & Barry, R. J. (2006). The auditory-evoked N2 and P3
components in the stop-signal task: Indices of inhibition, response-conflict or
error-detection? Brain and cognition, 62(2), 98-112.
Dimoska, A. Johnstone, S. J., Chiswick, D., Barry, R. J. and Clarke, A. R. (2007). A
developmental investigation of stop signal inhibition: Dissociating low and higher frequency activity in the event related potential. Journal of Psychophysiology, 21, 109-126.
Docker, S. (2006). Tai Chi and older people in the community: A preliminary study. Complementary therapies in clinical practice, 12, 111-118.
Donchin, E., & Coles, M. G. H. (1988). Is the P300 component a manifestation
of context updating? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 11, 357–374.
Endrass, T., Reuter, B., & Kathmann, N. (2007). ERP correlates of conscious error
recognition: Aware and unaware errors in an antisaccade task. The European journal of neuroscience, 26(6), 1714-1720.
Enriquez-Geppert, S., Konrad, C., Pantev, C., & Huster, R. J. (2010). Conflict and inhibition differentially affect the N200/P300 complex in a combined go/nogo and stop-signal task. Neuroimage, 51(2), 877-887.
Falkenstein, M., Hohnsbein, J., Hoormann, J., & Blanke, L. (1990). Effects of errors
in choice reaction tasks on the ERP under focused and divided attention. In C. H. M. Brunia, A. W. K. Gaillard & A. Kok (Eds.), Psychophysiological brain research (Vol. 1, pp. 192.195). Tilburg: Tilburg University Press.
Falkenstein, M., Hoormann, J., Christ, S., & Hohnsbein, J., (2000). ERP components
on recation errors and their functional significance: A tutorial. Biol. Psychol, 51, 87-107.
Fallgatter, A. J., & Herrmann, M. J. (2001). Electrophysiological assessment of
impulsive behavior in healthy subjects. Neuropsychologia, 39, 328–33.
Fu, S. M., Zinni, M., Squire, P. N., Kumar, R., Caggiano, D. M., & Parasuraman, R. (2008). When and where perceptual load interacts with voluntary visuospatial attention: An event-related potential and dipole modeling study. Neuroimage, 39(3), 1345-1355.
Gorman, C. (2002). Why Tai-Chi is the perfect exercise. Time, Aug19-Aug 26.
Fuster, J. M. (1997). The prefrontal cortex: Anatomy, physiology, and neuropsychology of the frontal lobe. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Press.
Hagstromer, M., Oja, P., & Sjostrom, M. (2006). The International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ): A study of concurrent and construct validity. Public Health Nutrition, 9(6), 755-762.
Hatta, A., Nishihira, Y., Kim, S. R., Kaneda, T., Kida, T., Kamijo, K., et al. (2005). Effects of habitual moderate exercise on response processing and cognitivprocessing in older adults. Japanese Journal of Physiology, 55(1), 29-36.
Helwick, C. (2010). Tai Chi May Improve Some ADHD Symptoms. Louisiana: American Psychiatric Association.
Heyn, P., Abreu, B. C., & Ottenbacher, K. J. (2004). The effects of exercise training on elderly persons with cognitive impairment and dementia: A meta-analysis. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 85(10), 1694-1704.
Hillman, C. H., Erickson, K. I., & Kramer, A. F. (2008). Be smart, exercise your heart: Exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(1), 58-65.
Hillman, C. H., Kramer, A. F., Belopolsky, A. V., & Smith, D. P. (2006). A cross-sectional examination of age and physical activity on performance and event-related brain potentials in a task switching paradigm. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 59(1), 30-39.
Hillman, C. H., Pontifex, M. B., Raine, L. B., Castelli, D. M., Hall, E. E., & Kramer, A. F. (2009). The effect of acute treadmill walking on cognitive control and academic achievement in preadolescent children. Neuroscience, 159(3), 1044-1054.
Hoffman, B. M., Blumenthal, J. A., Babyak, M. A., Smith, P. J., Rogers, S. D., Doraiswamy, P. M., & Sherwood, A. (2008). Exercise Fails to Improve Neurocognition in Depressed Middle-Aged and Older Adults. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 40(7): 1344–1352.
Hogan, M. (2005). Physical and cognitive activity and exercise for older adults: A review. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 60(2), 95-126.
Hung, T. M., Hung, C. L., Fong, D. Y., Chang, Y. K., Kao, J. F., & Lo, L. C. (2003). Theeffect of uncertainty on attention in table-tennis players and nonathletes. Bulletin of Sport and Exercise Psychology of Taiwan, 3, 97-110.
Irwin, M. R., Olmstead, R., & Oxman, M. N. (2007). Augmenting immune responses to varicella zoster virus in older adults: A randomized, controlled trial of Tai Chi. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 55(4), 511-517.
Jennings, J. M., Dagenbach, D., Engle, C. M., & Funke, L. J. (2007). Age-related changes and the attention network task: An examination of alerting orienting and executive function. Aging, Neuropsychology and Cognition, 14, 353-369.
Jonides, J., Smith, E. E., Marshuetz, C., Koeppe, R. A., & Reuter-Lorenz, P. A. (1998). Inhibition in verbal working memory revealed by brain activation. National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 95(14), 8410–8413.
Kamijo, K., & Takeda, Y. (2009). General physical activity levels influence positive and negative priming effects in young adults. Clinical Neurophysiology, 120(3), 511-519.
Kida, T., Nishihira, Y., Hatta, A., Wasaka, T., Nakata, H., & Sakamoto, M. (2003). Changes in the somatosensory N250 and P300 by the variation of reaction time. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 89, 326-330.
Klein, T. A., Endrass, T., Kathmann, N., Neumann, J., von Cramon, D. Y., & Ullsperger, M. (2007). Neural correlates of error awareness. Neuroimage, 34, 1774−1781.
Kok, A., Ramautar, J. R., De Ruiter, M. B., Band, G. P., & Ridderinkhof, K. R.
(2004). ERP components associated with successful and unsuccessful stopping in a stop-signal task. Psychophysiology, 41(1), 9-20.
Kramer, A. F., Hahn, S., Cohen, N. J., Banich, M. T., McAuley, E., & Harrison, C. R.
(1999). Ageing, fitness and neurocognitive function. Nature, 400(6743), 418-419.
Kutas, M., & Dale, A. (1997). Electrical and magnetic readings of mental functions
(Vol. 7). M. D. Rugg (Ed.): Hove East Susse.
Kutner, N. G., Barnhart, H., Wolf, S. L., McNeely, E., & Xu, T. (1997). Self-report benefits of Tai Chi practice by older adults. Journals of Gerontology, 52B(5), 242-246.
Lan, C., Lai, J. S., & Chen, S. Y. (2002). Tai Chi Chuan - An ancient wisdom on exercise and health promotion. Sports Medicine, 32(4), 217-224.
Lautenschlager, N. T., Cox, K. L., Flicker, L., Foster, J. K., van Bockxmeer, F. M.,
Xiao, J., Greenop, K. R., & Almeida, O. P. (2008). Effect of physical activity on cognitive function in older adults at risk for Alzheimer disease. Journal of the American Medical Association, 300(9), 1027-1037.
Lee, L. Y. K., Lee, D. T. F., & Woo, J. (2010). The psychosocial effect of Tai Chi on nursing home residents. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 19(7-8), 927-938.
Lezak, M. D., B., H. D., Loring, D. W., Hannay, H. J., & Fischer, J. S. (2004). Neuropsychological Assessment. New York: Oxford University Press.
Leuthold, H. & Sommer, W. (1999). ERP correlates of error processing in spatial S-R compatibility tasks. Clinical Neurophysiology, 110, 342-357.
Li, F., Harmer, P., & Fisher, K. (2007). Tai Chi-based exercise for older adults with Parkinson's disease: A pilot-program evaluation. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 15, 139-151.
Li, F., Harmer, P., McAuley, E., Fisher, K., Duncan, T., & Duncan, S. (2001). Tai Chi, self-efficacy, and physical function in the elderly. Prevention Science, 2, 229-239.
Li, F. Z., Harmer, P., Glasgow, R., Mack, K. A., Sleet, D., Fisher, J., et al. (2008). Translation of an effective Tai Chi intervention into a community-based falls-prevention program. American Journal of Public Health, 98(7), 1195-1198.
Linden, D. E. J. (2005). The P300: Where in the brain is it produced and what does it tell us? Neuroscientist, 11(6), 563-576.
Liotti, M., Pliszka, S. R., Higgins, K., Perez, R., & Semrud-Clikeman, M. (2010). Evidence for specificity of ERP abnormalities during response inhibition in ADHD children: A comparison with reading disorder children without ADHD. Brain and Cognition, 72(2), 228-237.
Liu, Y. F., Chen, H. I., Wu, C. L., Kuo, Y. M., Yu, L., & Huang, A. M. (2009).
Differential effects of treadmill running and wheel running on spatial or aversive learning and memory: Roles of amygdalar brain-derived neurotrophic factor and synaptotagmin I. Journal of Physiology, 587, 3221-3231.
Liu, Y., Mimura, K., Wang, L., & Ikuta, K. (2005). Psychological and physiological
effects of 24-style Taijiquan. Neuropsychobiology, 52, 212–218.
Logan, G. D., (1994). On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A users’ guide to the stop signal paradigm. San Diego, Academic Press,.
Logan, G. D., & Cowan, W. B. (1984). On the ability to inhibit thought and action – A theory of an act of control.Psychological Review, 91(3), 295-327.
Logan, G. D., Schachar, R. J., & Tannock, R. (1997). Impulsivity and Inhibitory Control. Psychological Science, 8(1), 60-64.
Matthews, M. M., & Williams, H. G. (2008). Can Tai chi enhance cognitive vitality? A preliminary study of cognitive executive control in older adults after A Tai Chi intervention. Journal of the South Carolina Medical Association, 104(8), 255-257.
Morone, N. E., & Greco, C. M. (2007). Mind-body interventions for chronic pain in older adults: A structured review. Pain Medicine, 8(4), 359-375.
Miller, G. E., & Cohen, S. (2001). Psychological interventions and the immune system: A meta-analytic review and critique. Health Psychology, 20(1), 47-63
Nakken, K. O., Bjørholt, P. G., Johannessen, S. I., LoSyning, T., & Lind, E. (1990). Effect of physical training on aerobic capacity, seizure occurrence, and serum level of antiepileptic drugs in adults with epilepsy. Epilepsia, 31(1), 88-94.
Nelson M. E., Rejeski W. J., & Blair S.N. (2007). Physical activity and public health
in older adults: Recommendation from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39, 1435-45.
Nieuwenhuis, S., Ridderinkhof, K. R., Blom, J., Band, G. P., & Kok, A. (2001).
Error-related brain potentials are differentially related to awareness of
response errors: Evidence from an antisaccade task. Psychophysiology, 38(5),752-760.
Oelkers-Ax, R., Schmidt, K., Bender, S., Reimer, I., Mohler, E., Knauss, E., et al. (2008). Longitudinal assessment of response preparation and evaluation in migraine gives evidence for deviant maturation. Cephalalgia, 28(3), 237-249.
Overtoom, C.C.E., Kenemans, J.L., Verbaten, M. N., Kemmer, C., van der Molen M.W., & van Engeland, H. M. (2002). Inhibition in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A psychophysiological study of the stop task. Biological Psychiatry 51, 668–676.
Perry, J. L., & Carrol, M. E. (2008). The role of impulsive behavior in drug abuse. Psychopharmacology, 200(1), 1-26.
Polich, J. (2004). P3a and p3b from affective stimuli: Gender and laterality. Psychophysiology, 41, S13-S13.
Polich, J., & Kok, A. (1995). Cognitive and biological determinants of P300: An
integrative review. Biological Psychology, 41, 103-146.
Polich, J., & Lardon, M. T. (1997). P300 and long-term physical exercise. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology, 103(4), 493-498.
Rabbitt, P. M. (1966). Error correction time without external error signals. Nature,
212(5060), 438.
Ramautar, J.R., Kok, A., Ridderinkhof, 2004. Effects of stop-signal probability in the
stopsignal paradigm: the N2/P3 complex further validated. Brain Cogn. 56, 243–252.
Reid-Arndt, S. A., Matsuda, S., & Cox, C. R. (2011). Tai Chi effects on
neuropsychological, emotional, and physical functioningfollowing cancer treatment: A pilot study. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, in press.
Ridderinkhof, K. R., Ullsperger, M., Crone, E. A., & Nieuwenhuiss, S. (2004). The role of the medial frontal cortex in cognitive control. Science, 306(5695), 443-447.
Rogers, C., Keller, C., & Larkey, L. K. (2010). Perceived Benefits of Meditative Movement in Older Adults. Geriatric Nursing, 31(1), 37-51.
Scourfield, P. (2006). The symbolic value of tai chi for older people. Quality in Ageing and Older Adults, 7, 4-12.
Senderecka, M., Grabowska, A., Szewczyk, J., Gerc, K., & Chmylak, R. (2011). Response inhibition of children with ADHD in the stop-signal task: An event-related potential study. International Journal of Psychophysiology, in press.
Sibley, B. A., & Etnier, J. L. (2003). The relationship between physical activity and cognition in children: A meta-analysis. Pediatric Exercise Science, 15(3), 243-256.
Sim, D., & Gaffney, D. (2002). Chen Style: The Source of Taijiquan. California: Blue Snake Books.
Suwazono, S., Machado, L., & Knight, R. T. (2000). Predictive value of novel stimuli modifies visual event-related potentials and behavior. Clinical Neurophysiology, 111(1), 29-39.
Taggart, H. (2001). Self-reported benefits of tai chi practice by older women. Journal of Holistic Nursing, 19, 223-237.
Taylor-Piliae, R. E., Haskell, W. L., Waters, C. M., & Froelicher, E. S. (2006). Change in perceived psychosocial status following a 12-week Tai Chi exercise programme. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 54(3), 313-329.
Taylor-Piliae, R. E., Newell, K. A., Cherin, R., Lee, M. J., King, A. C., & Haskell, W. L. (2010). Effects of Tai Chi and western exercise on physical and cognitive functioning in healthy community-dwelling older adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 18(3), 261-279.
Themanson, J. R., & Hillman, C. H. (2006). Cardiorespiratory fitness and acute aerobic exercise effects on neuroelectric and behavioral measures of action monitoring. Neuroscience, 141(2), 757-767.
Themanson, J. R., Hillman, C. H., & Curtin, J. J. (2006). Age and physical activity influences on action monitoring during task switching. Neurobiology of Aging, 27(9), 1335-1345.
Themanson, J. R., Pontifex, M. B., & Hillman, C. H. (2008). Fitness and action monitoring: Evidence for improved cognitive flexibility in young adults. Neuroscience, 157(2), 319-328.
Tsai, C. L. Pan, C, Y, Cherng, R, J, Hsu, Y, W, & Chiu, H, H. (2009). Mechanisms of
deficit of visuospatial attention shift in children with developmental coordination disorder: A neurophysiological measure of the endogenous Posner paradigm. Brain and Cognition, 71, 246-258.
Van Veen, V., & Carter, C. S. (2002). The timing of action-monitoring processes in
the anterior cingulate cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14(4),
593-602.
Verbruggen, F., & Logan, G. D. (2008). Response inhibition in the stop-signal
paradigm. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 12(11), 418-424.
Vocat, R., Pourtois, G., & Vuilleumier, P. (2008).Unavoidable errors: a
spatio-temporal analysis of time-course and neural sources of evoked potentials associated with error processing in a speeded task. Neuropsychologia, 46, 2545.2555.
Wahbeh, H., Elsas, S. M., & Oken, B. S. (2008). Mind-body interventions - Applications in neurology. Neurology, 70(24), 2321-2328.
Wayne, P. M., & Kaptchuk, T. J. (2008). Challenges inherent to t'ai chi research: Part II-defining the intervention and optimal study design. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine, 14(2), 191-197.
Yau, M., & Packer, T. (2002). Health and well-being through Tai Chi: Perceptions of older adults in Hong Kong. Leisure Studies, 21(2), 163-178.