臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

中文摘要
由於豬隻飼料之添加，豬糞堆肥中常含有高量Cu 、Mn及Zn，而有機物是堆肥中最主要且重要之成份。本研究採取8個養豬場腐熟之固液分離豬糞渣(separated swine manure solids, SSMS)堆肥成品，探討堆肥中Cu 、Mn、Zn及有機物之化學特性。並以1個養豬場之新鮮SSMS進行堆肥化，探討堆肥化作用對這些特性之影響，與堆肥化期間有機物之轉化。於堆肥之應用研究方面，本研究探討SSMS堆肥對兩種污染土壤中Cd、Pb、Cu、Zn、Cr及Ni等六種重金屬及有機物化學特性之影響。本研究並找出包括pH變化及堆肥腐熟度不足所導致之固相有機物溶解及外來溶解性有機物加入等影響堆肥與土壤中重金屬溶出性與移動性之因子。期能助於SSMS堆肥之農地利用，減少對環境之危害。
本研究採用一系列的萃取技術，包括去離子水萃取、以鹼萃取腐植質與金屬、合成酸雨階梯式批次萃取、序列萃取、不同pH萃取、豬糞尿有機廢水萃取等，以探討堆肥與土壤中重金屬之溶出性等特性。以霍氏轉換紅外線光譜(FTIR)及碳13-核磁共振光譜(13C-NMR)分析方法，探討堆肥化期間有機物之轉化。
8個養豬場共16個堆肥成品中，Cu含量為132∼1380 mg/kg，Mn含量為197∼1135 mg/kg，Zn含量為372∼2840 mg/kg。序列萃取之可交換相量、合成酸雨之第一批次萃出量、及於中性pH之萃出量顯示，一般堆肥成品中Cu、Mn及Zn之溶出性與有機碳之溶解性均低(均約< 6%)。其中F2堆肥成品由於腐熟度不足，使得堆肥中有機物大量溶解(18%)，導致Cu之大量溶出(高達20%)。8個堆肥成品中，Cu、Mn及Zn之化學型態分別主要分佈於有機物相、氧化物相及碳酸鹽相，顯示這些元素於環境中潛在移動性或植物有效性大小依序為Zn＞Mn＞Cu。Cu於以鹼萃取腐植質時之高萃出性(>80%)；於合成酸雨四批次萃取步驟中，萃出性隨有機碳之溶解性逐次降低；及於pH＞8時，萃出性隨有機碳溶解性之增加而增加；這些結果顯示堆肥中Cu主要是以與有機物結合態存在的。相反地，Mn及Zn與有機物之親和力低，使得此二元素於鹼之萃出性極低。
堆肥成品中Cu、 Mn及Zn之溶出性與化學型態分佈等特性與元素含量無關。但是，腐熟度不足與pH變化所導致之有機物溶解等因子，顯著促進Cu之溶出性，對Mn及Zn之影響則較小。
堆肥化期間，灰份含量、C/N比、金屬元素含量、腐植碳含量、HA/FA 比等參數之變化均相互顯著相關，均可做為評估SSMS堆肥穩定度之參數。這些參數均顯示，有機物之分解速率於前18天極為快速，之後逐漸緩和，從第49天至堆肥結束期間極為緩慢。堆肥化期間，Cu、Mn及Zn初始含量分別為343、121及577 mg/kg，分別增加至結束時之976、331及1540 mg/kg，均增加約2.7倍。Cu、Mn及Zn之水溶性量均隨有機碳之溶解性於開始逐漸增加至第18 天達最高值，然後逐漸降低直至堆肥結束。Cu、Mn及Zn之化學型態除水溶性外，不受堆肥齡及元素含量逐漸增加之影響。腐植質(humic substances)含量由開始之28％增加至結束時之44％，顯示有機物腐植化之過程。
FTIR與13C-NMR之分析結果頗為一致，均顯示容易分解之有機物，例如脂肪鏈、多醣類、醇類及蛋白質等成分於堆肥化期間逐漸分解，而使得堆肥成品具更高之芳香族結構及更高之安定性，亦顯示異質性有機物經堆肥化後，已經轉化為均質性之成品。
本研究採用之觀音鄉土壤屬壤砂土，Cd及Pb含量高。蘆竹鄉土壤屬黏土，Cd、Pb、Cu及Zn含量亦高。序列萃取結果顯示，兩種土壤之Cd及Pb均主要分佈於可交換相，碳酸鹽相及氧化物相三相中，三相之總合均約 > 70%；DTPA萃出性與植物攝取試驗結果亦均顯示，兩種土壤中Cd與Pb之高潛在移動性與植物有效性。蘆竹土壤中Cu主要分佈於有機物相，Zn主要分佈於可交換相。豬糞堆肥有機物料之添加，使得兩種土壤中之Cu及Cr有機物相量增加，及Pb之分佈大幅往後移至殘渣相，降低這些重金屬之潛在移動性。
合成酸雨與有機廢水都增進污染土壤中重金屬溶解度。有機物含量低之觀音砂質土壤，其合成酸雨萃取液pH下降達2 pH單位，導致該土壤中Cd溶出量高達32%。豬糞尿液有機廢水亦大幅增進土壤中與溶解性有機物之親和力高之Cu與Ni之溶解度。當pH > 8時，土壤中Cu溶出量隨土壤有機物溶解度而升高，其餘各種重金屬溶出量維持低量。
本研究中，SSMS堆肥中之Cu與Zn展現與土壤中Cu與Zn相同之化學特性。另一方面，化學與光譜分析結果，SSMS堆肥中有機物展現與土壤有機物許多相同之化學特性。因此，當SSMS堆肥施放農地時，堆肥中之有機碳可能即進入土壤之碳循環。
關鍵詞：固液分離豬糞渣、堆肥、腐熟度、有機物、腐植質、土壤、重金屬、溶出性、萃出性、序列萃取、合成酸雨階梯式萃取、豬糞尿液、有機物轉化、FTIR、13C-NMR。

英文摘要
ABSTRACT
Swine manure was comprehensively characterized with respect to Cu, Mn, and Zn due to feed additives. Eight separated swine manure solids (SSMS) composts were collected to study the leachability and identify factors influencing the leachability of these elements from these composts to assess its environmental hazard. Composting of SSMS was also conducted to evaluate criteria indicating compost maturity, to determine the characterization of trace elements and transformation of organic matter during the process. We also evaluate the effect of SSMS compost on fractionation and characterization of Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, Cr and Ni in two contaminated soils.
Several chemical properties were determined to assess the degree of maturity of eight SSMS composts. A series of extraction schemes were used to determine base-extractable metals and their distribution on humic substance fractions (humic acid, HA; fulvic acid, FA; and nonhumic fraction, NHF), chemical fractionation, synthetic acid rainwater (SAR) solubility, and extractability at various pH levels of metals in composts. We evaluated the influence of dissolved organic carbon from compost on the extractability of these metals. The SSMS composts were enriched with Cu (154-1380 mg kg-1), Mn (239-976 mg kg-1), and Zn (372-2840 mg kg-1). The SAR and neutral pH extractable fractions of Cu, Mn, Zn, and organic C were generally low (< 10% of their total content). Copper leachability in F2 compost, however, was high (20%), resulting from immaturity and associated substantial dissolution of organic C (18%). High extractability (86%) of Cu from HS extraction and at high pH levels (> 8) resulted from dissolution of organic matter. The major portions of Cu, Mn, and Zn were found in the organic, oxide, and carbonate fractions, respectively, regardless of their content in these composts, indicating that the potential leachability of elements in the environment were in the order Zn > Mn > Cu. The results of this study show that Cu in SSMS compost is primarily bound to organics. Conversely, the the affinity of Mn and Zn for organics was low.
The C/N ratio and ash content exhibited a typically high rate of change during the first 49 d of the composting process and leveled off thereafter. All metal concentrations (mg/kg) increased approximately 2.7 folds in the final compost due to decomposition of organic matter. Waters-soluble fractions of Cu, Mn, Zn and organic C increased to a maximum at Day 18 and declined thereafter. Parameters such as ash content, C/N ratio, metal concentration, water extract EC, extracted humic C, and the HA/FA ratio can be used as maturity indices in this research.
During the composting process, the major portions of Cu, Mn, and Zn were found in the organic, oxide, and carbonate fractions, respectively. Metal distributions in different chemical fractions were generally independent of composting age and, thus, independent of respective total metal concentrations in the compost.
The finding in FTIR and 13C-NMR spectra in this research indicate that easily degradable OM constituents, such as aliphatic chains, polysaccharides, alcohols, and protein, are decomposed. As a result, the mature compost contained more aromatic structures of higher stability. Organic matter transformation as analyzed by FTIR and NMR also suggests that the composting process transforms heterogeneous raw SSMS OM to a compositionally uniform product at the end of the process.
The Kuan-Yin soil has a texture of sand loam containing high level of Cd (135 mg/kg) and Pb (1040 mg/kg). The Lu-Chu soil has a texture of clay loam containing high level of Cd (69 mg/kg), Pb (256 mg/kg), Cu (670 mg/kg), and Zn (328 mg/kg). More than 70% of Cd and Pb in both soils were associated with the first three fractions in the sequential extraction. Copper was mainly present in the organic fraction, while Zn mostly resided in the exchangeable fraction in Lu-Chu soil. Amendment of these soils with SSMS compost increased the organic fractions of Cu and Cr and residual fractions of Pb, making these elements more immobilized in soils. The synthetic acid rainwater substantially modified Cd leachability (up to 32% of total) in Kuan-Yin soil which contained low organic matter with little effect on the leachability of Cd in Lu-Chu soil.
Copper and zinc in SSMS compost exhibit similar characteristics as these elements in soils. Chemical and spectroscopic analyses also show that organic matter in SSMS compost exhibit similar characteristics as soil organic matter. Once SSMS compost was applied to soil, compost organic matter readily entered the soil "C cycle".
Keywords: Separated swine manure solids; Compost; Maturity; Organic matter; Humic substances; Soil; Heavy metal; Leachability; Extractability; Sequential extraction; Synthetic acid rainwater cascade batch extraction; Pig slurry liquid fraction; Organic matter transformation; FTIR; 13C-NMR。

目錄
中文摘要
英文摘要
目錄
縮寫
第一章 緒論 ----------------------------------------------1
1-1 前言 ----------------------------------------------1
1-2 研究目的 ---------------------------------------------3
1-3 研究內容 ---------------------------------------------4
第二章 文獻回顧 ------------------------------------------6
2-1 國內養豬及糞尿處理現況 ---------------------------6
2-2 有機廢棄物之堆肥化 -------------------------------8
2-2-1 廢棄物之堆肥化----------------------------8
2-2-2 堆肥之腐熟度 ----------------------------9
2-2-3 生物固體之分解模式-----------------------12
2-2-4 堆肥化期間碳、氮、磷及重量之損失-----------13
2-3 堆肥之有機成分---------------------------------------------------15
2-3-1 非腐植質部分----------------------------------------------15
2-3-2 腐植質部分 ---------------------------------------------16
2-3-3 有機碳在腐植酸、黃酸及非腐植質部分之分佈-----17
2-3-4 腐植酸之基本組成與官能基 --------------------------18
2-3-5 腐植酸之光譜特性 ------------------------------------19
2-3-6 固態有機物之光譜分析-----------------------------------20
2-4 動物糞便中重金屬-------------------------------------22
2-5 生物固體中重金屬之化學特性---------------------------25
2-5-1 生物固體中重金屬之化學型態-------------------------25
2-5-2 生物固體中重金屬於腐植酸及黃酸之分佈-------------28
2-5-3 生物固體中重金屬之溶出性----------------------------29
2-6 土壤中重金屬之貯留機制 ----------------------------------------30
2-6-1 土壤溶液中無機型態之重金屬----------------------------31
2-6-2 土壤礦粒表面之吸附 --------------------------------------33
2-6-3 土壤有機物之吸附 -----------------------------------------36
2-6-4 沉澱 -----------------------------------------------------------------37
2-7 序列萃取與土壤中重金屬之化學特性---------------------------39
2-8 pH及溶解性有機物對堆肥及土壤中重金屬溶解性之影響--45
第三章 材料與方法 --------------------------------------------------49
3-1 實驗流程 -------------------------------------------------------49
3-2 固液分離豬糞堆肥成品採樣及分析 ------------------53
3-2-1 養豬場豬糞尿處理設施 -----------------------53
3-2-2 堆肥成品採樣程序 ----------------------------54
3-2-3 物理及化學性質分析 --------------------------54
3-2-4 腐植質與金屬之萃取試驗-------------------------------56
3-2-5 序列萃取試驗 ------------------------------------------57
3-2-6 合成酸雨階梯批次萃取試驗 ----------------------59
3-2-7 不同pH萃取試驗 --------------------------60
3-2-8 豬糞尿液有機廢水萃取試驗----------------------------60
3-2-9 植物攝取重金屬試驗----------------------------------------61
3-3 新鮮固液分離豬糞之堆肥化 ----------------------------------62
3-3-1 堆肥化之進行及採樣 ----------------------------62
3-3-2 基本組成及物理與化學性質分析----------------------63
3-3-3 去離子水萃取試驗-----------------------------------------63
3-3-4 腐植質與金屬之萃取試驗--------------------63
3-3-5 序列萃取試驗 ---------------------------------------64
3-3-6 霍氏轉換紅外線光譜分析 ---------------------------67
3-3-7 碳13-核磁共振光譜分析 ----------------------------------67
3-3-8 厭氧培育試驗----------------------------------------------68
3-4 土壤採樣及分析 -----------------------------------------------------69
3-4-1 污染場址概述及土壤採樣 -----------------------------69
3-4-2 土壤之物理化學性質分析 -----------------------------70
3-4-3 土壤重金屬含量分析 -------------------------------------72
3-4-4 土壤以不同萃取劑之萃取試驗 --------------------------72
3-4-4-1 去離子水萃取試驗 ------------------------------72
3-4-4-2 DTPA萃取試驗 ----------------------------------72
3-4-4-3 0.1 M HCl萃取試驗 -----------------------------73
3-4-5 土壤之序列萃取試驗 --------------------------------------73
3-4-6 土壤添加豬糞堆肥有機物料之序列萃取試驗 --------73
3-4-7 土壤於不同pH之萃取試驗 -----------------------------73
3-4-8 合成酸雨階梯批次萃取試驗 -----------------------------74
3-4-9 土壤以豬糞尿液有機廢水之萃取試驗 --- -------------74
3-4-10 植栽攝取重金屬試驗 -----------------------------------74
第四章 豬糞堆肥成品中重金屬與有機物之化學特性 -----------------76
4-1 堆肥之物理及化學性質-------------------------------76
4-2 堆肥之基本組成 -------------------------------------77
4-3堆肥中銅、錳及鋅含量 -------------------------------79
4-4 堆肥中腐植質含量與鹼萃出性金屬----------------------------81
4-4-1 腐植質含量------------------------------------------------81
4-4-2 鹼萃出性金屬及其於腐植質各型態之分佈 ---------83
4-5 序列萃取與堆肥中銅、錳及鋅之化學型態---------------85
4-6 堆肥中金屬及有機物之水溶性 -------------------------90
4-7 pH對堆肥中金屬及有機物溶解性之影響 -------------93
4-8 有機廢水對堆肥中金屬溶出性之影響 ----------------95
4-9 植物攝取金屬 -------------------------------------------97
4-10 各種萃取技術之比較------------------------------------100
4-11 綜合討論 ---------------------------------------------------102
第五章 豬糞堆肥化期間金屬特性變化及有機物之轉化 -----------104
5-1 堆肥化之進行----------------------------------------------104
5-2 重量、碳、氮及磷之損失---------------------------107
5-3 生物固體粒之分解模式----------------------------------109
5-4 金屬元素之濃縮效應 ------------------------------112
5-5 堆肥成份之水溶性 ----------------------------------114
5-5-1 有機碳之水溶性 ------------------------------115
5-5-2 銅錳及鋅之水溶性--------------------------------118
5-5-3 其他離子之水溶性-------------------------120
5-6 腐植質含量與鹼萃出性金屬----------------------------124
5-6-1 腐植質含量-----------------------------------------124
5-6-2 鹼萃出性金屬與其於腐植質各型態之分佈--127
5-7 序列萃取 -------------------------------------------------129
5-7-1 有機碳之分佈 -------------------------------129
5-7-2 有機物之腐植化 -------------------------------130
5-7-3 銅、錳及鋅之化學型態 ----------------------133
5-7-4 銅、錳及鋅於腐植酸及黃酸之分佈 --------141
5-8有機物轉化之光譜分析 --------------------------------------143
5-8-1霍氏轉換紅外線光譜分析 -----------------------143
5-8-2 碳13-核磁共振光譜分析 ------------------------150
5-9 厭氧培育 -----------------------------------------------155
5-10 綜合討論-------------------------------------------------156
第六章 豬糞堆肥之應用：對土壤中重金屬及有機物化學特性之影響 ------------------------------------------------------------------158
6-1 土壤之物理化學性質-------------------------------------158
6-2 土壤中重金屬含量 -----------------------------------159
6-3 土壤中重金屬於不同萃取劑之萃出性 -------------160
6-4 土壤中重金屬之化學型態 --------------------------------164
6-5 豬糞堆肥對土壤中重金屬化學型態之影響 ------173
6-6 pH對土壤中重金屬及有機物溶解度之影響 -------180
6-7 合成酸雨對土壤中重金屬及有機物溶解度之影響-185
6-8 豬糞尿液有機廢水對土壤中重金屬溶解度之影響 196
6-9 植物攝取重金屬-----------------------------------------202
6-10 綜合討論 ---------------------------------------------------203
第七章 結論與建議 ------------------------------------------------------205
7-1 結論---------------------------------------------------205
7-2 建議---------------------------------------------------209
參考文獻 ----------------------------------------------------------211
附錄 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------230
表目錄
Table 2-1. Classification of methods for testing compost maturity. -----11
Table 2-2. Distribution of organic C from selected composts in humic fractions as percentage of total dry compost weight.---------------17
Table 2-3. Elemental composition (%) of humic acid preparations from selected composts, soils, and sludges. ---------------------------------18
Table 2-4. Functional group distribution of humic acid preparations from selected composts, soils, and sludges. --------------------------19
Table 2-5. Pollutant concentration limits (mg/kg dry weight) of compost and other wastes for agricultural use. -------------------25
Table 2-6. Hydrolysis, carbonate and chloride formation constants, pb, of metals.---------------------------------------------------------------33
Table 2-7. Complexation reactions and constants for metals with hydrous ferric oxide.------------------------------------------------------------36
Table 2-8. Solubility reactions and products for metallic hydroxides and carbonate.-------------------------------------------------------------39
Table 4-1. Gross physical and chemical properties of SSMS composts. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------77
Table 4-2. Macroelement composition (g/kg) of SSMS composts on an oven dry-weight basis.---------------------------------------------------79
Table 4-3. Trace element content (mg/kg dry weight) of SSMS composts collected on two occasions. --------------------------------------------81
Table 4-4. Extracted humic C (g/kg) by NaOH and its distribution in HA, FA and NHF as % of organic C. --------------------------------------83
Table 4-5. Extracted metals (mg/kg) by NaOH and their distribution in HA, FA and NHF fractions. --------------------------------------------85
Table 4-6. Cu, Mn, and Zn (mg/kg) associated with extractable forms in separated swine manure composts studied.----------------------88
Table 4-7. Matrix correlation (coefficient of correlation r ) of Cu, Mn, and Zn fractionations with some compost parameters. ---------90
Table 4-8. Cascade extraction organic C (mg/L) and metal (mg/kg) concentrations for SSMS compost samples. ------------------------93
Table 4-9. Characteristics of pig slurry liquid fraction. -------------------97
Table 4-10. Extracted metals (Cu, Mn, and Zn) by water and pig slurry liquid fraction(PSLF).--------------------------------------------97
Table 4-11. Total element content, water extractable and DTPA extractable element concentration of the SSMS compost used for plant uptake study.-----------------------------------------100
Table 4-12.Element concentrations in plant tissue.------------------------100
Table 5-1. Chemical properties and total elemental concentration of SSMS during the composting process (on a dry-weight basis). --109
Table 5-2. Kinetic parameter estimates for fresh biosolid decomposition using the simultaneous and sequential decomposition models where kr is the rapid fraction rate constant and ks is the slow fraction rate constant. ------------------------------------------------------------------111
Table 5-3. Matrix correlation (coefficient of correlation r) of total elemental concentration with some chemical properties during composting of separated swine manure. --------------------------114
Table 5-4. Chemical properties and composition of water extract (1:10 solid/water) of SSMS at various stages of the composting process. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------118
Table 5-5. Matrix correlation (coefficient of correlation r) of water extract properties and composition with bulk samples during composting of separated swine manure. -----------------------------------------124
Table 5-6. Humic substances content and humification index (HI), humification ratio (HR), and percentage of humic acid (HP) during SMSS composting. ----------------------------------------------------127
Table 5-7. Extracted metals (mg/kg) by NaOH and their distributions in HA, FA and NHF fractions during SSMS composting.------------128
Table 5-8. Distribution of compost C in the various fractions as a percentage of total compost C during the composting process. --130
Table 5-9. Extracted humic C and its distribution in FA and HA fractions. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------132
Table 5-10. Correlation coefficients (r) between parameters used for SSMS compost maturity indices. -------------------------------------133
Table 5-11. Cu, Mn, and Zn (mg/kg) associated with extractable forms during composting of separated swine manure.--------------------137
Table 5-12. Matrix correlation (coefficient of correlation r) of Cu, Mn, and Zn extractions with some composting parameters.-----------139
Table 5-13. Distribution of Cu, Mn, and Zn in FA and HA fractions of Na4P2O7 and NaOH extracts. ------------------------------------------143
Table 5-14. Distribution of C-containing groups during composting of SSMS as determined by CPMAS 13C-NMR (percent of total C). ------------------------------------------------------------------------------153
Table 5-15. Matrix correlation (coefficient of correlation r) of FTIR peak intensity ratios and 13C-NMR C-containing groups with some composting parameters.----------------------------------------155
Table 5-16. Total content and water-soluble fraction of element during SSMS anaerobic incubation (on a dry-weight basis).-------------156
Table 6-1. Characteristics of study soils from Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu.-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------159
Table 6-2. Total metal contents in Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. ---------160
Table 6-3. Maximum allowable heavy metal concentrations (mg/kg) in agricultural soils. --------------------------------------------------------160
Table 6-4. Water, DTPA, and 0.1 M HCl extractable metals (mg/kg) from Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. ------------------------------------------163
Table 6-5. Classification of heavy metal concentrations (mg/kg) in soils in Taiwan. ----------------------------------------------------------------164
Table 6-6. Fe and Mn (mg/kg) associated with extractable forms in Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. -----------------------------------------------167
Table 6-7. Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, Cr, and Ni (mg/kg) associated with extractable forms in Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. ---------------------------172
Table 6-8. Chemical properties of the SSMS compost amended to soils. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------174
Table 6-9. Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, Cr, Ni, Fe, and Mn (mg/kg) associated with extractable forms in SSMS compost amended Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. ----------------------------------------------------------------178
Table 6-10. Cascade extraction organic C (mg L-1) and metal (mg kg-1) concentrations for Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. --------------------195
Table 6-11. Correlation coefficients of cascade extraction metal concentrations with extraction pH and organic C concentrations for Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. ------------------------------------------196
Table 6-12. Some chemical properties of pig urine, pig slurry liquid fraction, and secondary effluent used in this study. ----------------197
Table 6-13. Swine liquid waste extraction pH and organic C concentration (mg/L) for Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. -----------------------------199
Table 6-14. Extracted metals (mg/kg) by pig urine, PSLF, secondary effluent, and DI water for Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. -----------201
Table 6-15. Correlation coefficients of extraction metal concentrations with extraction pH, organic C anc Cl- concentrations for Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. -------------------------------------------------------201
Table 6-16. Element concentrations in plant tissue for Kuan-Yin soil. -203
圖目錄
Fig. 2-1. Piggery waste treatment process. ------------------------------------7
Fig. 2-2. CPMAS 13C-NMR spectra of (a) whole soil, (b) HA, (c) FA, and (d) humin from the surface soil layor of a spruce forest.------------20
Fig. 2-3. Adsorption of Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Pb, Ni, V, and Zn onto hydrous ferric oxide. ---------------------------------------------------------------36
Fig. 2-4. Complexation of Cd and Cu with humic material. --------------37
Fig. 2-5. The solubility of (a) metallic hydroxides and (b) carbonates.--39
Fig. 3-1. Experimental flowchart of this research. ---------------------52
Fig. 3-2. Scheme for sequential extraction and fractionation of trace elements and organic C in composts. ----------------------------------65
Fig. 4-1. Distribution of (a) Cu, (b) Zn, and (c) Mn in the various fractions obtained from composts by sequential extraction. --------89
Fig. 4-2 pH dependence of metals extraction and organic C dissolution for SSMS compost. ------------------------------------------------------95
Fig. 4-3. Comparison of the percentage of an element and organic C (excluded in the sequential extraction) extracted in the (a) sequential extraction exchangeable fraction, first SRC extraction, and neutral pH levels extraction and (b) the sequential extraction organic fraction, HS extraction, and pH 11.44 extraction for SSMS composts.------------------------------------------102
Fig. 5-1. Compost and ambient temperature during SSMS composting. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------105
Fig. 5-2. The C/N ratio and ash content during SSMS composting. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------106
Fig. 5-3. Correlation between organic matter (equivalent to ignition loss) and organic C during SSMS composting. ---------------------------107
Fig. 5-4. Percent decomposition vs. time for SSMS biosolid. Predictions from the simultaneous decomposition model. ----------------------111
Fig. 5-5. Natural logarithm of percent C remaining (100%-% Decomposition) vs. time for SSMS biosolid. Predictions from the sequential decomposition model. -------------------------------------112
Fig. 5-6. Variation of Cu, Mn, and Zn content during SSMS composting. -----------------------------------------------------------------------------113
Fig. 5-7. Water-soluble organic C concentrations and water-soluble fractions of Cu, Mn, and Zn during SSMS composting. --------116
Fig. 5-8 Correlation between water-soluble organic C and leaching elements during SSMS composting. --------------------------------120
Fig. 5-9. Electrical conductivity and NO3- concentration during SSMS composting (measured in a 1:10 solid/water extract). -------------122
Fig. 5-10. Relative content of humic acid (HA), fulvic acid (FA), nonhumic fraction (NHF), and humic substances (HS) as a percentage of compost organic matter during SSMS composting. --------------------------------------------------------------------126
Fig. 5-11. Distribution of (a) Cu, (b) Mn, and (c) Zn in the various fractions by sequential extraction. ----------------------------------138
Fig. 5-12. Distribution of (a) Cu, (b) Mn, and (c) Zn in the various fractions during SSMS composting. -------------------------------141
Fig. 5-13. FTIR spectra of bulk SSMS compost at six stages of composting (raw, 7, 18, 33, 80, and 122 d). ----------------------145
Fig. 5-14. FTIR peak intensity ratios (1650/2930, 1650/2850, and 1650/1050/cm-1) vs. C/N ratio during SSMS composting. ------147
Fig. 5-15. FTIR spectra of residual ash at three stages of composting (raw, 33, and 122 d). --------------------------------------------------------148
Fig. 5-16. FTIR spectra of ash-free organic matter in SSMS compost at three stages of composting (raw, 33, and 122 d). Ash spectra were subtracted from those of the bulk materials. ---------------------149
Fig. 5-17. CPMAS 13C-NMR spectra of SSMS compost samples at six stages of composting (raw, 7, 18, 33, 80, and 122 d). -----------151
Fig. 6-1. Partitioning of Fe and Mn in Kuan-Yin (K-Y) and Lu-Chu (L-C) soils. ----------------------------------------------------------------167
Fig. 6-2. Partitioning of Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, Cr, and Ni in (a) Kuan-Yin and (b) Lu-Chu soils. ------------------------------------------------------173
Fig. 6-3. Partitioning of Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, Cr, Ni, Fe, and Mn in compost-amended (a) Kuan-Yin (b) Lu-Chu soils. --------------------------179
Fig. 6-4. pH dependence of soil organic C extracted for Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. ----------------------------------------------------------182
Fig. 6-5. pH dependence of (a) Cd, (b) Pb, (c) Cu, (d) Zn, (e) Cr, and (f) Ni extraction for Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. --------------------184
Fig. 6-6. Variation of extract pH during rainwater cascade extraction for Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. ----------------------------------------186
Fig 6-7. Dissolution of soil organic C during rainwater cascade extraction for Kuan-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. -----------------------188
Fig. 6-8. Leaching of (a) Cd, (b) Pb, (c) Cu, (d) Zn, (e) Cr, and (f) Ni during rainwater cascade extraction for Kuna-Yin and Lu-Chu soils. --------------------------------------------------------------------195

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