臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

Crisis management is inevitable in the modern day society that pushed organizations to become transparent in their operations. Publics are enabled with learning opportunities about knowledge of interested issues. This has, in turn, forced organizations today to act more responsibly. With the development of internet and digital storage, any piece of information today, once on the internet, is almost impossible to demolish. While communication is made easier and faster for organizations to reach publics, communication is no longer one-way. It is simultaneously happening mulit-directions. Publics receiving information from organizations can also be information originators for other publics as well as feedback to the organizations. This study suggests embracing two-way communication tools in routine operations can not only build stronger organization-public relationships, but also serve as mechanisms in altering crisis life patterns and providing defense shields in crisis situations.

The study took a qualitative approach in examining two historic cases in comparison with the recent Taipei City Government Xinsheng Overpass crisis to determine the possibilities. Criterion adopted to evaluate the effectiveness of the crises include Kent and Taylor’s (1998) five dialogic principles and an additional factor of whether the employed communication medium bypass filters in reaching targeted publics. Interviews with Taipei City Government’s spokesperson Chao Xin-ping was conducted to gain insight of the Xinheng Overpass crisis. It is observed from the evaluations and case comparisons that the assumptions made of existent two-way communication tools can effectively assist in crisis management. It is still with restriction that knowledge of internal operations on historic cases could not be obtained for further examination. The fact that private organizations seemed to embrace the use of social media in crisis communication more than public sectors could also imply a more customer-oriented approach to crisis management. With increasing emphasis on customer satisfaction in government agencies, implementing two-way communications can build the long-term social capital needed for civil services and policy-making. It is also observed in this study that crisis of human error or mismanagement often send prior warning signals. It is surmised that with adequate crisis-sensing mechanism, organizations can effectively detect these crisis threats, providing organizations opportunities in shortening the information void immediately following crisis happenings.

Government agencies, unlike private and non-profit organizations, cannot be bankrupted by market mechanisms. The services of government agencies are by far more complex than private or non-profit organizations. Until today, there has not been a case of successful or failed crisis management that actively utilized existent two-way communications in its operations. It is for future research to determine whether government agencies employing these relationship-building communicational tools can turnaround crisis situations and failing public trust conditions.

Chapter 1 Introduction…………………………………………………………. 1
1.1 Motive of research …………………………………………………… 6
1.2 Hypothesis…………………………………………………………… 10
1.3 Methodology……………………………………………….………… 11

Chapter 2 Literature Review…………………………………………………… 13
2.1 Publics………………………………………………………………… 14
2.2 Crisis communication………………………………………………… 15
2.3 Crisis life cycle and crisis management………………………………. 15
2.4 Issue management ……………………………………………………. 18
2.5 Two-way symmetrical communication and dialogic loop……………. 19

Chapter 3 Methodology & Case Analysis
3.1 Data collection and analysis criterion………………………………… 23
3.2 Case analysis: 2004 Mercyhurst College Case ………………………. 27
3.3 Case analysis: 2009 Domino’s Youtube hoax ……………………..... 33



Chapter 4 Case review: Taipei City Government 2010 Xinsheng Overpass
4.1 Case overview and crisis life cycle…………………………………… 42
4.2 Risk Assessment ……………………………………………………… 45
4.3 Crisis communication tactic analysis…………………………………. 51
4.3.1 Proactive Stage…………………………………………………... 53
4.3.2 Reactive Stage…………………………………………………… 54
4.3.3 Existent IT tools un-utilized in crisis communication…………... 58
4.3.4 Conclusion……………………………………………………….. 63
4.4 Case comparisons……………………………………………………… 69

Chapter 5 Suggestions and Conclusion
5.1 Findings………………………………………………………………….. 74
5.2 Suggestions………………………………………………………………. 79


List of References…………………………………………………………………... 81


Appendice
I. Chronology of events in Mercyhurst College crisis of allegations against President Garvey’s sexual abuse of teenagers (2004)……………………….. 88
II. Mercyhurst College press releases related to crisis………………………….. 89
III. Chronology of events in Domino’s Youtube crisis (2009)………………….. 90
IV. Taipei City Government 2010 Xinsheng Overpass-Official press releases retrieved……………………………………………………………………… 91
V. Taipei City Government 2010 Xinsheng Overpass-Taipei Times headlines retrieved…………………………………………………………………...…. 93
VI. Taipei City Government 2010 Xinsheng Overpass- Chronology of Four Major Press Headlines……………………………………………………….. 94
VII. Original Chinese email request to Mayor’s Mailbox (case no. MA201012210178)……………………………………………………………... 100

(June 30, 2010). "The Internet Big Picture: World Internet Users and Population Stats." Retrieved November 17, 2010, from http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm.

(April 9, 2006) “The blog in the corporate machine.” The Economist. Retrieved November 20, 2010, from http://www.economist.com/node/5501039?story_ id=5501039. London, The Economist Newspaper Ltd. 378: 66-67.

"Press Freedom Index 2010 ". Retrieved December 9, 2010, from http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2010,1034.html.

(1999). Summary of a Workshop on Information Technology Research for Crisis Management, Washington, D.C., National Academy Press.

(2010). "2010 Index of Economic Freedom." The Heritage Foundation. Retrieved November 12, 2010, from http://www.heritage.org/index/Country/Taiwan.

(2010). "Household internet penetration in Taiwan hits 78.7% - survey." Retrieved November 20, 2010, from http://www.telecompaper.com/news/household-internet-penetration-in-taiwan-hits-787-survey.

(October 26, 2006). “Taiwanese distrust media, survey says it lacks credibility.” Taipei Times. Retrieved November 23, 2010, from http://www.asiamedia.ucla.edu/article-eastasia.asp?parentid=56293

Adams, M. (2005).Trust in governments, corporations and global institutions continues to decline. World Economic Forum Annual Meeting. Geneva, Switzerland, World Economic Forum.

Anderson, D. S. (1992). "Identifying and responding to activist publics: a case study." Journal of Public Relations Research 4(3): 151-165.

Avery, E. J., & Lariscy, R. W. (2010). FEMA and the Rhetoric of Redemption: New Directions in Crisis Communication Models for Government Agencies. The handbook of crisis communication. W. T. Coombs, & Holladay, Sherry J. Chichester, UK, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.: 325.

Barnes, P. (2001). Risky Business-Crisis management needs in the public sector. IPAA Qld State Conference.

Berrisford, S. (2006). "How will you respond to the information crisis?" Strategic Communication Management 10(1): 26-29.

Boin, A., & Lagadec, P. (2000). "Preparing for the future: Critical challenges in crisis management." Journal of Contingencies and crisis management 8(4): 185-191.


Bruning, S. D., Castle, J. D., & Schrepfer, E. (2004). "Building relationships between organizations and publics: Examining the linkage between organization-public relationships, evaluations of satisfaction, and behavioral intent." Communication Studies 55(3): 435-446.

Bruning, S. D., Dials, M., & Shirka, A. (2008). "Using dialogue to build organization-public relationships, engage publics, and positively affect organizational outcomes." Public Relations Review 34(1): 25-31.

Caponigro, J. R. (2000). The Crisis Counselor: A Step-By-Step Guide to Managing a Business Crisis McGraw-Hill Companies.

Carlson, S. (February 16, 2010). "For a Campus in Crisis, the President''s Voice Is Key." The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved December 2, 2010, from http://chronicle.com/article/For-a-Campus-in-Crisis-the/64220/.

Chen, D. Y., Huang, T.Y., & Hsaio, N. (2003). The management of citizen participation in Taiwan: A case study of Taipei City Government''s Citizen Complaint System. Government Public Relations: A Reader. M. Lee, Taylor & Francis Group: 209-225.

Clifford, S. (April 15, 2009). "Video Prank at Domino’s Taints Brand." The New York Times. Retrieved December 7, 2010, from http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/16/ business/media/16dominos.html?_r=2&ref=business.

Coombs, W. T. (1998). "The internet as potential equalizer: new leverage for confronting special irresponsibility." Public Relations Review 24(3): 289-303.

Coombs, W. T. (2007). Ongoing crisis communication: planning, managing and responding, Sage Publications, Inc.

Coombs, W. T. (2007). "Protecting Organization Reputations During a Crisis: The Development and Application of Situational Crisis Communication Theory." Corporate Reputation Review 10(3): 163-176.

Dahlberg, L. (1998). "Cyberspace and the Public Sphere: Exploring the Democratice Potential of the Net." Convergence 4(1): 70-84.

DeVries, D. S., & Fitzpatrick, K. R. (2006). "Defining the characteristics of a lingering crisis: Lessons from the National Zoo." Public Relations Review 32(1): 160-167.

DiNardo, A. M. (2001). "The Internet as a crisis management tool: a critique of banking sites during Y2K." Public Relations Review 28(3): 367-378.

Duhe, S. C., Ed. (2007). New Media and Public Relations. New York, NY, Peter Lang Publishing Inc.

Farazmand, A. (2007). "Learning from the Katrina Crisis: A global and international perspective with implications for future crisis management." Public Administration Review 67(6): 149-159.

Fine, S. H. (1990). Social marketing: promoting the causes of public and nonprofit agencies, Allyn and Bacon.

Fink, S. (2002). Crisis Management: Planning for the inevitable. Cincinnatti.OH, Authors Guild.

Fisherman, D. A. (1999). "ValuJet flight 592: Crisis communication theory blended and extended." Communication Quarterly 47(4): 345-375.

Galloway, C. (2005). "Cyber-PR and "dynamic touch"." Public Relations Review 31(4): 527-577.

Gibson Hancox, M. K., & Peyronel, Anothony C. (2007). Balancing traditional channels of public relations with new media technologies in crisis communication: the case of a Catholic College. New Media and Public Relations. S. C. Duhe. New York, NY, Peter Lang Publishing Inc.: 423-435.

Gonalez-Herrero, A., & Smith, S. (2010). "Crisis communications management 2.0: Organizational principles to manage crisis in an online world." Organization Development Journal 28(1): 97-105.

Gonzalez-Herrero, A., & Pratt, C. B. (1998). "Marketing Crises in Tourism: Communication strategies in the United States and Spain." Public Relations Review 24(1): 83-97.

Gonzalez-Herrero, A., & Pratt, C. B. (1996). "An integrated symmetrical model for crisis-communications management." Journal of Public Relations Research 8(2): 79-105.

Gonzalez-Herrero, A., & Smith, S. (2008). "Crisis communications management on the Web: how internet-based technologies are changing the way public relations professionals handle business crises." Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management 16(3): 143-153.

Gregory, A. (2005). "Commnication dimensions of the UK foot and mouth disease crisis, 2001." Journal of Public Affairs(5): 312-328.

Grunig, J. E. (2000). "Collectivism, collaboration, and societal corporatism as core professional values in public relations." Journal of Public Relations Research 12(1): 23-48.

Gurevitch, M., Coleman, S., & Blumler, J. G. (2009). "Political communication--Old and new media relationships." The Annals of the American Academy 625(September): 164-181.

Harding, P. (February 15, 2010) "PeoPo helps Taiwanese public broadcaster to restore trust: Public Television''s citizen journalism project hailed a success." The Guardian. Retrieved November 15, 2010, from http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2010/feb/ 15/citizen-journalism-taiwan.

Hauben, M. (1992). The Net and Netizens: The Impact the Net Has on People''s Lives. Netizens: On the History and Impact of Usenet and the Internet, Wiley-IEEE Computer Society Press: 361.

Hazleton, V., Harrison-Rexrode, J., & Kennan, W. R. (2007). New Technologies in the Formation of Personal and Public Relations: Social Capital and Social Media. New Media and Public Relations. S. C. Duhe. New York, NY, Peter Lang Publishing Inc.

Hearit, K. M. (2006). Crisis management by apology: corporate response to allegations of wrongdoing, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, INC., Publishers.

Henry, R. A. (2008). Communicating in a crisis: a guide for management. Seattle, Washington, Gollywobbler Productions.

Hooper, J. (April 13, 2009). “Video: Let the Domino''s appall as they may.” Good As You. Retrieved December 7, 2010, from http://www.goodasyou.org/good_as_you/2009/ 04/video-let-the-dominoes-appall.html.

Huang, Y.-H. e. a. (2005). "Crisis communicative strategies in Taiwan: Category, continuum, and cultural implication." Public Relations Review 31(2): 229-238.

James, M. (2007). "A review of the impact of new media on public relations: Challenges for terrain, practice and education." Asia Pacific Public Relations Journal 8: 137-148.

Jo, S., & Kim, Y. (2003). "The Effect of Web Characteristics on Relationship Building." Journal of Public Relations research 15(3): 199-233.

Kauffman, J. (2005). "Lost in space: A critique of NASA''s crisis communications in the Columbia disaster " Public Relations Review 31(2): 263-275.

Kaufmann, J. B., Kesner, I.F., & Hazen, T.L. (1994). "The Myth of Full Disclosure: A Look at Organizational Communications During Crises." Business Horizons 37(4): 29-39.

Kent, M. L., & Taylor, M. (1998). "Building dialogic relationships through the world wide web." Public Relations Review 24(3): 321-334.

Kitchen, P. J., & Panopoulos, A. (2010). "Online public relations: The adoption process and innovation challenge, a Greek example." Public Relations Review 36(2): 222-229.

Knowles, S. L. (2006). "Married to technology, for better or for worse? PR pros discuss pros and cons of new communication method." Public Relation Tactics 13(3): 20-21.

Ledingham, J. A., & Bruning, S. D. (1998). "Relationship management in public relations: Dimensions of an organization-public relationship." Public Relations Review 24(1): 55-65.

Lee, K. (2009). "How the Hong Kong government lost the public trust in SARS: Insights for government communication in a health crisis." Public Relations Review 35: 74-76.

Lee, M., Ed. (2008). Government public relations: a reader, Taylor and Francis Group.

Lordan, E. J. (2001). Cyberspin: The use of new technology in public relations. Handbook of public relations. G. M. V. Robert Lawrence Heath. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications, Inc.: 583-589.

Markus, M. L. (1987). "Toward a "Critical Mass" Theory of Interactive Media." Communication Research 14(5): 491-511.

Marra, F. J. (1992). Crisis public relations: a theoretical model. Ann Harbor, Michigan, The University of Maryland, College Park. Doctoral.

Marra, F. J. (1998). "Crisis communication plans: Poor predictors of excellent crisis public relations." Public Relations Review 24(4): 461-474.

Martin, R. M., & Boynton, L. A. (2005). "From liftoff to landing: NASA''s crisis communications and resulting media coverage following the Challenger and Columbia tragedies." Public Relations Review 31(2): 253-261.

Martinez, A. (June 17, 2002). "A Boyhood of Abuse, a Warning to Others." Los Angeles Times. Retrieved December 2, 2010, from http://articles.latimes.com/2002/ jun/17/news/lv-al17.

McConnell, A. (2003). "Crisis Management, Influences, Responses and Evaluation." Parliamentary Affairs 56(3): 363-409.

Monberg, J. (1998). "Making public count: a comparative case study of emergent information technology-based publics." Communication Theory 8(4): 426-454.

Motion, J. (2005). "Participative public relations: Power to the people or legitimacy for government discourse? ." Public Relations Review 31(4): 505-512.

Neilsen Online (2010). How People Watch: A Global Nielsen Consumer Report, The Nielsen Company: 16.

Paul, M. J. (2001). "Interactive Disaster Communication on the Internet: A Content Analysis of Sixty-Four Disaster Relief Home Pages." Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly 78(4): 739-753.

Penrose, J. M. (2000). "The Role of Perception in Crisis Planning." Public Relations Review 26(2): 155-171.

Perry, D. C., Taylor, M., & Doerfel, M. L. (2003). "Internet-based communication in crisis management." Management Communication Quarterly 17(2): 206-232.

Preble, J. F. (1997). "Integrating the crisis management perspective into the strategic management process." Journal of Management Studies 34(5): 769-791.


Ray, S. J. (1999). Organizational crisis and communication. Strategic communication in crisis management: lessons from the airline industry. Westport, CT, Quorum Books: 13-27.

Reader''s Digest (2010). "Reader''s Digest Trusted Brands-Trust in our community 2010." Retrieved November 15, 2010, from http://www.rdtrustedbrands.com/trusted-brands/results/tables/community.shtml.

Regester, M., & Larkin, J. (2008). Risk issues and crisis management in public relations: a case book of best practice, Kogan Page.

Rosenthal, U., & Kouzmin, A. (1997). "Crises and Crisis Management: Toward Comprehensive Government Decision Making." Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 7(2): 277-304.

Schworm, P. (2009). A sorry state of affairs: public apologies becoming a ''tenor of times''. Boston Globe. Boston.

Seeger, M. W., Sellnow, T.L., & Ulmer, R.R. (2003). The Nature of Organizational Crisis. Communication and organizational crisis. Westport, CT, Praeger Publishers: 8.

Seltzer, T., & Mitrook, M. A. (2007). "The dialogic potential of weblogs in relationship building." Public Relations Review 33(2): 227-229.

Shell, A. (1993). "In a crisis, what you say isn''t always what the public hears." The Public Relations Journal 49(9): 10-11.

Smith D. & Toft, B. (1998). "Issues in Public Sector Management." Public Money & Management 18(4): 7-10.

Sparks Fitzgerald, S., & Spagnolia, N. (1999). "Four predictions for PR practitioners in the new millennium." Public Relations Quarterly 44(3): 12-14.

Su, S. (April 12, 2010). "Does Taiwan…s Explosive Facebook Growth Mean More To Come In East Asia?". Retrieved December 10, 2010, from http://www.insidefacebook.com/2010/04/12/does-taiwans-explosive-facebook-growth-mean-more-to-come-in-east-asia/.

Tapscott, D., & Ticoll, D. (2003). The naked corporation: how the age of transparency will revolutionize business. New York, NY, Free Press.

Taylor, M., Kent, M. L., & White, W. J. (2001). "How activist organizations are using the Internet to build relationships." Public Relations Review 27: 263-284.

Taylor, M., & Perry, D.C. (2005). "Diffusion of traditional and new media tactics in crisis communication." Public Relations Review 31(2): 209-217.

Taylor, M., & Kent, M. L. (2007). "Taxonomy of mediated crisis responses." Public Relations Review 33: 140-146.

The Pew Research Center for the People & the Press (2010). Distrust, Discontent, Anger and Partisan Rancor: The People and Their Government, The Pew Research Center for the People & the Press.

Ulmer, R. R. (2001). "Effective Crisis Management Through Established Stakeholder Relationship: Malden Mills as a Case Study." Management Communication Quarterly 14(1): 590-615.

Van der Merwe, R., Pitt, L. F., & Abratt, R. (2005). "Stakeholder strength: PR survival strategies in the internet age." Public Relations Quarterly 50(1): 39-48.

Walters, C. (April 14, 2009). "Consumerist Sleuths Track Down Offending Domino''s Store." The Consumerist. Retrieved December 6, 2010, from http://consumerist.com/2009/04/consumerist-sleuths-track-down-offending-dominos-store.html.

Walters, C. (April 13, 2009). "Domino''s Rogue Employees Do Disgusting Things To The Food, Put It On YouTube." The Consumerist. Retrieved December 6, 2010, from http://consumerist.com/2009/04/dominos-rogue-employees-do-disgusting-things-to-the-food-put-it-on-youtube.html.

Welch, E. W., Hinnant, C. C., & Moon, M. J. (2005). "Linking citizen satisfaction with E-government and trust in government." Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 15(3): 371-391.

Zaremba, A. J. (2010). Crisis Communication: theory and practice, M.E. Sharpe, Inc.

Zhong, H. (December 14, 2010). "Smartphones Could Double Taiwan''s Market Share in 2011: Industry." Retrieved December 16, 2010, from http://www.wantchinatimes.com/ news-subclass-cnt.aspx?cid=1204&MainCatID=12&id=20101214000009.