臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

本研究是透過行動研究調查描述為期一年之集體個案研究，旨在探討北台灣某社區大學5位非傳統年齡學習者（三位女性，兩位男性）之學習經驗。最特別地，這個以行動研究為主幹的調查本著受Vygotskyian啟發之社會文化及學習社群之觀點闡明這些退休人士在學習英語過程中的動機及經驗。資料的來源乃透過對參與者的訪談，課程互動的錄音及錄影，參與者的日記，基本問卷調查，研究者的筆記，及私人的書信往返，並透過紮根理論之分析。研究者發現參與者的看法及自評報告與學習社群的準則是相符合的。最後，在本論文之討論及結論部分中本研究對於其限制及潛在之教學運用亦做了探討。

This study reports on the findings of a one-year collective case study of five non-traditionally-aged adult English learners’ (three female, one male) experiences at one community college in northern Taiwan. More specifically, this mostly action research investigation attempts to shed light on these retirees’ motivations and the educational experiences as they negotiate the English-learning process from a Vygotskyian-inspired sociocultural and community of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991) perspective. Data were gathered through interviews with participants, audio and video-recordings of classroom interactions, participants’ reflective journals, basic demographic questionnaires, the chief researcher’s class notes, and personal communication, and analyzed via Strauss and Corbin’s (1998) Grounded Theory open, axial and selective codification procedures. The researcher discovered that the perceptions and self-reported experiences of the focal participants conformed to Lave and Wenger’s community of practice (CoP) criteria. Finally, a discussion of the study’s limitations and potential pedagogical implications are presented in this report’s discussion and conclusion sections, respectively.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT (Chinese)…………………………………………………I
ABSTRACT (English) …………………………………………III
ACKNOWLEDGEMNET .…………………………………………IV
TABLE OF CONTENTS………………………………………………V
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………X
LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………XI
LIST OF APPENDICES ……………………………………………XII

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION…………………………………1
1.1 Purpose of the Study …………………………………………1
1.2 Statement of the Problem……………………………2
1.2.1 Graying of Population…………………………………… 2
1.2.2 NTALL V.S. Young Learners……………………………… 3
1.2.3 A Gap/Lacuna in the Literature…………………………… 4
1.3 Rationale…………………………………………………………4
1.3.1 Community Colleges in Taiwan…………………………… 4
1.3.2 NTALL – A Worldwide Prevailing Trend………………………9
1.3.3 Dearth of Information Regarding NTALL…………………9
1.4 Research Questions………………………………………………10
1.5 Methodology………………………………………………………10
1.6 Significance of Study……………………………………………11
1.7 Limitations of Study……………………………………………11
1.8 Definition of Terms…………………………………………………12
1.8.1 NTALL (Non-Traditionally Aged Language Learners)………12
1.8.2 Adult Learner…………………………………………………13
1.8.3 Andragogy……………………………………………………14
1.8.4 Social Gerontology…………………………………………14
1.8.5 Community of Practice………………………………………15
1.8.6 Community Language Learning (CLL)………………………15
1.8.7 Grammar Translation Method (Classical Method)…………17
1.8.8 The Direct Method (Charles Berlitz) …………………………18
1.8.9 The Audiolingual Method (ALM) ……………………………19
1.8.10 Total Physical Response (TPR) ………………………………21
1.8.11 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) …………………22
1.8.12 The Natural Approach………………………………………25

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW….……………………27
2.1 Andragogy (Study of Adult Learners)…………………………27
2.1.1 Cognitive Factors………………………………………………28
2.1.2 Affective Factors………………………………………………35
2.1.3 Teaching Implications for NTALL……………………………41
2.2 Related to Socio-cultural Theory..…………………………………48
2.3 Related to Activity Theory and Task-based Theory…………54
2.3.1 Activity Theory………………………………………………54
2.3.2 Task-based Theory………………………………………………54

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY..…………………………54
3.1 Preliminary Pilot Study……………………………………………54
3.2 Participants………………………………………………………54
3.3 Data Collection Procedure…………………………………………57
3.4 Qualitative Data Collection Methods………………………………………58
3.5 Data Analysis Instrument Employed………………………61
3.6 Data Analysis……………………………………………….62

CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS……………………………………64
4.1 Class as Community Building & Community Language Learning Rituals…64
4.1.1 Introducing Students to Community Rules……………………64
4.1.2 Security Index (SI)……………………………………………65
4.1.3 Break Students’ Pride…………………………………………69
4.1.4 Activate Students’ Prior Experiences………………………69
4.1.5 Teaching Students to Help Each Other………………………70
4.1.6 Major Community Activity Ritual: Farewell Party…………71
4.2 Role of English in Focal Participants Lives…………………72
4.2.1 Keep up to Date with Code Switching …………………………72
4.2.2 Crystal’s Spreading Influence of English…………………….73
4.2.3 Learn About SLA – From Instructor’s Experiences at NTUST………74
4.2.4 English to Communicate with Foreigners…………………74
4.2.5 English to Help Teach Grandchildren………………………76
4.3 Non-English Learning Aspects in Focal Participants’ Lives……76
4.3.1 Escape from Traditional Roles & Family……………………76
4.3.1.1 Safe Learning Haven……………………77
4.3.1.2 Can Maintain Face and Social Status……78
4.3.1.3 Learning How to Learn (Automaticity)…………79
4.3.2 Way of Keeping Up with Society…………………………80
4.3.2.1 Electronic Dictionaries……………………81
4.3.2.2 Websites………………………………………81
4.3.2.3 E-learning Social Tools (Facebook)………82
4.3.2.4 Email……………………………………………84
4.3.2.5 Text Messages………………………………85
4.3.3 New Friendships & Social Community………………………85
4.3.4 Social Support System…………………………………………86
4.3.4.1 Medical – Cancer Story…87
4.3.4.2 Financial – Advice About Business Investing…87
4.3.4.3 Business – Sharing Information About Products……88

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS………90
5.1 Research Questions……………………………………………….90
5.1.1 Research Question No. 1 – To what extent - if at all - do issues of community have on the focal participants’ experiences as NTALLs? …………90
5.1.2 Research Question No. 2 – What Are the Roles That the Focal Participants’ EFL Courses Play in Their Lives?............................91
5.1.3 Research Question No. 3 – What Pedagogical Implications Can be Derived From the Participants’ Experiences as NTALLs?...............96
5.2 Limitation of the Study………………………………………….101
5.3 Suggestions for Future Studies……………………………………102
5.4 Conclusion………………………………………………………103

REFERENCES ………………………………………………………105

APPENDICES ………………………………………………………112

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Traditional vs. Non-Traditional Learners........................................................12
Table 4.1 Security Index Questionnaire………………………………66

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1 Data Collection Procedure…………………………………58
Figure 3.2 Data Collection Methods……………………………………59
Figure 3.3 Four Stages of Analysis……………………………………62
Figure 4.1 Joe’s Security Index Chart…………………………………67

LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix 1 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (4) American Headway 1………………………………112
Appendix 2 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (4) American Headway 1 – L1 to L7…………………………………………………113
Appendix 3 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (4) American Headway 1 – L8 to L14………………………………………………..114
Appendix 4 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (1) At the Airport…………………………………………………………………115
Appendix 5 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (1) At the Airport…………………………………………………………………116
Appendix 6 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (1) At the Airport…………………………………………………………………117
Appendix 7 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (1) At the Airport…………………………………………………………………118
Appendix 8 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (1) At the Airport…………………………………………………………………119
Appendix 9 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (1) At the Airport…………………………………………………………………120
Appendix 10 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (1) At the Airport…………………………………………………………………121
Appendix 11 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (1) At the Airport……………………………………………………………122
Appendix 12 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (1) At the Airport…………………………………………………………………123
Appendix 13 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (1) At the Airport………………………………………………………………124
Appendix 14 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (1) At the Airport………………………………………………………………125
Appendix 15 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (2) Hotel and Restaurant English……………………………………………………26
Appendix 16 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (2) Hotel and Restaurant English…………………………………………………127
Appendix 17 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (2) Hotel and Restaurant English……………………………………………………128
Appendix 18 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (2) Hotel and Restaurant English……………………………………………………129
Appendix 19 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (2) Hotel and Restaurant English……………………………………………………130
Appendix 20 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (2) Hotel and Restaurant English……………………………………………………131
Appendix 21 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (2) Hotel and Restaurant English…………………………………………………132
Appendix 22 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (2) Hotel and Restaurant English……………………………………………………133
Appendix 23 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (2) Hotel and Restaurant English……………………………………………………134
Appendix 24 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (2) Hotel and Restaurant English……………………………………………………135
Appendix 25 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (2) Hotel and Restaurant English……………………………………………………136
Appendix 26 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (2) Hotel and Restaurant English……………………………………………………137
Appendix 27 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (2) Hotel and Restaurant English……………………………………………………138
Appendix 28 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (3) Can You Believe It?......................................................................139
Appendix 29 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (3) Can You Believe It? – L1………………………………………………………………140
Appendix 30 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (3) Can You Believe It? – L1………………………………………………………………141
Appendix 31 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (3) Can You Believe It? – L2………………………………………………………………142
Appendix 32 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (3) Can You Believe It? – L2……………………………………………………………143
Appendix 33 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (3) Can You Believe It? – L3……………………………………………………………144
Appendix 34 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (3) Can You Believe It? – L3………………………………………………………………145
Appendix 35 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (3) Can You Believe It? – L4………………………………………………………………146
Appendix 36 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (3) Can You Believe It? – L4………………………………………………………………147
Appendix 37 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (3) Can You Believe It? – L5……………………………………………………………148
Appendix 38 The Researcher’s Teaching Material – (3) Can You Believe It? – L5………………………………………………………………149
Appendix 39 Transcripts of Interviews of the Focal Participants……150
Appendix 40 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #1………160
Appendix 41 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #2………161
Appendix 42 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #3………162
Appendix 43 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #4………163
Appendix 44 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #5………164
Appendix 45 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #6………165
Appendix 46 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #7………166
Appendix 47 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #8………167
Appendix 48 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #9………168
Appendix 49 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #10………169
Appendix 50 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #11………170
Appendix 51 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #12………171
Appendix 52 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #13………172
Appendix 53 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #14………173
Appendix 54 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #15………174
Appendix 55 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #16………175
Appendix 56 Journals of the Focal Participants – Student #17………176

Allen, P. A. (1990). Influence of processing variability on adult age differences in memory distribution of order information. Cognitive Development, 5, 177-192.
Allen, P. A., Madden, D. J., Groth, K. E., & Crozier, L. C. (1992). Impact of age, redundancy, and perceptual noise on visual search. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 47, 69-74.
Asher, J. (1977). Learning Another Language Through Actions: The Complete Teachcr's Cuide Book. Los Gatos, Calif.: Sky Oaks Productions. (2nd ed. 1982).
Avermaet, P. V., Colpin, M., Gorp, K. V. , Bogaert, N. , & den Branden, K. V. (2006). The role of the teacher in task-based language teaching. In K. V. den Branden, M. H. Long & J. C. Richards (Eds.), Task-based language education: From theory to practice (pp. 175-196). Cambridge: Cambrideg Applied Linguistics.
Baddeley, A. (1992). Working Memory. Science, New Series. Vol. 255, No. 5044, 556-559.
Baker, M., Hansen, T., Joiner, R., & Traum, D. (1999). Theoretical foundations of learning environments. In P. Dillenbourg (Ed). Collaborative learning: Cognitive and computation approaches. Pergamon, Greece: Elsevier Science.
Barnard, R., & Campbell, L. (2005) Sociocultural theory and the teaching of process writing: The scaffolding of learning in a university context. The TESOLANZ Journal, 13, 76-88.
Bjork, R. A., & Richardson-Klavehn, A. (1989). On the puzzling relationship between environmental context and human memory. In C. Izawa (Ed.), Current issues in cognitive processes: The Tulane Flowerree Symposium on Cognition (pp. 313-344). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Brown, H. Douglas. (2001). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. Second Edition. Longman/ Pearson Education, White Plains, New York.
Brown, H. Doglaus. (2000). Principles of Language Learning and Teaching, Fourth Edition. White Plains, N.Y.:Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Bull, K. S., Kimball, S., & Mongomery, D. (2005). Characteristics of Adult (Non-traditional) Learners. Retrieved June 20, 2007, from http://home.okstate.edu/homepages.nsf/toc/EDUC5910iep7
Celce-Murcia, M. (Ed.). (2001). Teaching English as a second or foreign language. Third Edition. Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.
Charles, D. C. (1983). Adapting materials to use physical and psychological changes in older learners. In J. P. Wilson (Ed.), Materials for teaching adults: Selection, development, and use (pp. 53-60). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Clark, E., Heller, A. F., Rafman, C., & Walker, J. (1997). Peer learning: A popular model for seniors education. Educational Gerontology, 23(8), 751-762.
Curran, C.A. (1976). Counseling-learning in second language. East Dubuque, IL: Counseling-Learning Publications.
Ehrich, J. F. (2009). Vygotsky and linguistic relativity: The case of Chinese and English reading. In P. Robertson & J. Adamson (Eds.). The Linguistics Journal, 4(1), 91-111.
Ehrman, M. E. (1996). Understanding Second Language Learning Difficulties. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publications.
Engeström, Y. (2001). Expansive learning at work: Toward an activity theoretical reconceptualization. Journal of Education and Work, 14(1), 133-156.
Glass, J. C. (1996). Factors affecting learning in older adults. Educational Gerontology, 22(4), 359-372.
Hale, C. (2005). Helping the Older Language Learner Succeed. ICCT Coachnotes. Retrieved June 20, 2007, from http://www.wheaton.edu/bgc/ICCT/pdf/CN_older.pdf
Hasher, L., & Zacks, R. T. (1988). Working memory, comprehension, and aging: A review and a new view. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 22, p.p. 193-225). San Diego: Academic Press.
Hess, T. M., Flannagan, D. A., & Tate, C. S. (1993). Aging and memory for schematically vs taxonomically organized verbal materials. Journal of Gerontology, 48, 37-44.
Horn, J. L., & Cattell, R. B. (1967). Age difference in fluid and crystallized intelligence. Acta Psychologica, 26, 107-129.
Imel, S. (1989). Teaching Adults. Is it Different? ERIC Digest.
Isssroff, K., & Scanlon, E. (2002). Using technology in higher education : An activity theory perspective. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 18(1), 77-83.
Jackson, J. D., & Kemper, S. (1993). Age differences in summarizing descriptive and procedural texts. Experimental Aging Research, 19, 39-51.
Jenkins, J. J. (1974). Remember that old theory of memory? Well forget it! American Psychologist, 29, 785-795.
Johnson, K. (2008). An introduction to foreign language learning and teaching. London: Pearson Education Limited.
Jonassen, D. H., & Rohrer-Murphy, L. (1999). Activity theory as a framework for designing constructivist learning environments. Education technology, Research and Development, 47(1), 61-79.
Krashen, S. D., M. A. Long, & R. C. Scarcella (1979). Age, Rate and Eventual Attainment in Second Language Acquisition. Tesol Quarterly 13: 573-582.
Krashen, S. D., & Terrell, Tracy D. (1983). The Natural Approach: Language Acquisition in the Classroom. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Pergamon Press.
Lantolf, J. P. (2000). Introducing sociocultural theory. In: Lantolf, J. P., ed. Sociocultural theory and second language learning. Oxford University Press, 1 – 26.
Light, L. L. (1988). Language and aging: Competence versus performance. In J. E. Birren & V. L. Bengtson (Eds.), Emergent theories of aging (pp. 177-213). New York: Springer Publishing Company.
Madden, D. J., Connelly, S. L., & Pierce, T. W. (1994). Adult age differences in shifting focused attention. Psychology and Aging, 9, 528-538.
Meierhenry, W. C. (1983). Educational materials for teaching adults. In J. P. Wilson (Ed.), Materials for teaching adults: Selection, development, and use (pp. 53-60). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Meyer, B. J. F. (1987). Reading comprehension and aging. In K. W. Schaie & C. Eisdorfer (Eds.), Annual review of gerontology and geriatrics (pp. 93-115). New York: Springer Publishing Company.
Murphey, T. (2000). Encouraging critical collaborative autonomy. JALT Journal, 22(2). 228-244.
Myerson, J., Hale, S., Wagstaff, D., Poon, L. W., & Smith, G. A. (1990). The information-loss model: A mathematical theory of age-related cognitive slowing. Psychological Review, 97, 475-487.
Nguyen, L. V. (2010, March). Computer mediated collaborative learning within a communicative language teaching approach: A sociocultural perspective. The Asian EFL Journal Quarterly, 12(1), 202-233.
Ostwald, S. K., & Williams, H. Y. (1985). Optimizing Learning in the Elderly: A Model. LIFELONG LEARNING 9, 10-13, 27.
Oxford, Rebecca. (1990). Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. New York: Newbury House Publishers.
Prator, C. H., & M. Celce-Murcia (1979). An Outline of Language Teaching Approaches. In Celce-Murcia, M. and McIntosh L. (Eds.), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. New York: Newbury House.
Rosalie J. Ocker & Gayle J. Yaverbaum (1999). Asynchronous Computer-mediated Communication versus Face-to-face Collaboration: Results on Student Learning, Quality and Satisfaction. Group Decision and Negotiation, 8 (pp. 427-440). Netherlands.
Rice, G. E., Meyer, B. J. F., & Miller, D. C. (1989). Using text structure to improve older adults' recall of important medical information. Educational Gerontology, 15, 527-542.
Richards, Jack C., & Rodgers, Theodore S. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Salthouse, T. A., & Babcock, R. L. (1991). Decomposing adult age differences in working memory. Developmental Psychology, 27, 763-776.
Schleppegrell, M. (1987). The Older Language Learner. ERIC Digest. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics. (ED287313).,
Schrooteh, W. (2006). Task-based language teaching and ICT: Developing and assessing interactive multimedia for task-based language teaching. In K. V. den Branden, M. H. Long, & J. C. Richards (Eds.), Task-based language education: From theory to practice (pp. 129-150). Cambridge: Cambrideg Applied Linguistics.
Seidlhofer, B. (Ed.). (2003). Controversies in Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Seok, S. (2008). Teaching aspects of e-learning. International Journal on E-learning, 7(4), 726-741.
Service, E., & Fergus I.M.. (1993). Differences between Young and Older Adults in Learning a Foreign Vocabulary. Journal of Memory and Language. 32, 608-623.
Smith, B. (2003). Computer-mediated negotiated interaction: An expanded model. The Modern Language Journal, 87(1), 38-57.
Stine, E. L., & Wingfield, A. (1987). Process and strategy in memory for speech among younger and older adults. Psychology and Aging, 2, 272-279.
Sweller, J. (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12, 257-285.
Sweller, J. (1989). Cognitive technology: Some procedures for facilitating learning and problem solving in mathematics and science. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81, 457-466.
Sweller, J. (1994). Cognitive load theory, learning difficulty, and instructional design. Learning and Instruction, 4, 295-312.
Thoms, K. J. (2001). They’re Not Just Big Kids: Motivating Adult Learners. ERIC – Education Resources Information Center. 3-4. Retrieved June 20, 2007, from http://eric.ed.gov/REICWebPortal/Home.portal?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=RecordDetails&ERIC.
Tulving, E., & Thompson, D. M. (1973). Encoding specificity and retrieval processes in episodic memory. Psychological Review, 80, 352-373.
Turuk, M. C. (2008). The relevance and implications of Vygotsky‘s sociocultural theory in the second language classroom. ARECLS, 5, 244-262.
Twitchell, S., Cherry, K. E., & Trott, J. W. (1996). Educational Strategies for older learners: Suggestions from cognitive aging research. Educational Gerontology, 22(2), 169-181.
Van der Veer, R., & J. Valsiner. (1991). Understanding Vygotsky: A quest for synthesis. Basil Blackwell Inc: Cambridge Massachusetts.
Van Gerven, P., Paas, F., Van Merrienboer, J., & Schmidt, H. (2000). Cognitive load theory and the acquisition of complex cognitive skills in the elderly: Towards an integrative framework. Educational Gerontology, 26(6), 503-521.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.), Cambridge Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1986). Thought and language. A. Kozulin (Ed.), Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
Wedemeyer, C. A. (1983). Materials for nontraditional study and the natural learning of adults. In J. P. Wilson (Ed.), Materials for teaching adults: Selection, development, and use (pp. 53-60). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Wells, G. (1999). Dialogic inquiry: Towards a sociocultural practice and theory of education. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
Wertsch, J. (1985). Vygotsky and the social formation of mind. UK: Harvard University Press.
Wingfield, A., Lahar, C. J., & Stine, E. A. L. (1989). Age and decision strategies in running memory for speech: Effects of prosody and linguistic structure. Journal of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences, 44, P106-P113.