臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

台灣自來水供水系統相當完善，普及率極高。而近年來部分研究顯示，長期暴露於自來水中的微量重金屬物質，有可能對人體造成健康的影響。因此，本研究針對國內92座淨水場水質中重金屬濃度進行檢測，主要目的為瞭解淨水場於原水、清水及配水中微量金屬濃度的分佈情形，分別探討其水樣中金屬濃度的來源以及影響，並分析配水與臍帶血中金屬濃度變化的相關性。本研究以感應耦合電漿質譜儀（Inductively Coupled Plasma - Mass Spectrometry, ICP-MS）進行原水、清水及配水中20種微量金屬濃度分析，並將結果分別與地質中金屬礦物分佈、淨水場之處理流程及臍帶血中金屬濃度進行相關性探討。利用地理資訊系統(Geographic Information System, GIS)進行淨水場位置定位、圖層套疊及環域分析，將金屬濃度資料整合後以統計軟體(Statistical Analysis System, SAS)進行統計分析。研究結果顯示，原水中元素砷於沖積層地質濃度平均值為1.49±1.51 µg/L，其濃度值明顯高於其他地質之原水含砷量(p<0.05)。且位於沖積扇平原之嘉義及彰化地區，淨水場原水中砷的濃度平均值分別為3.12±1.07 µg/L及2.87±0.11 µg/L，相較於其他地區淨水場之原水，含砷量較高(p<0.05)。而淨水場處理流程之差異，於處理後之清水中元素砷、鈹、鈷、鉻、錳、鎳、鉈及釩之濃度平均值下降；元素銻、硒、銀則濃度上升，其濃度之差異性達統計上顯著差異(p<0.05)。於半徑2、3及4公里之供水範圍內，臍帶血與配水中元素鈹、鎘、鉬、鈾、銻之濃度呈現正相關。因此，針對經由配水所攝取之微量金屬，於體內長期累積下可能造成的健康影響，值得在後續相關研究進一步探討。

The water supply system in Taiwan is quite well established and its serving rate is extremely high. However, recent studies have indicated that adverse effects resulting from exposure to trace metals in tap water could occur at low levels. Therefore, the main purpose of this study were to characterize the distribution of trace metal levels in raw, finished, distributed water, in order to explore the source of and the effect of exposure to trace metals in water, and to correlate the trace metal levels in distributed water and cord blood. Trace metal levels in water of 92 domestic water treatment plants were analyzed in this study. Inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was used for the analysis of 20 trace metals in raw, finished and distributed water. Furthermore, the results were examined for in the association with geologic properties, water treatment processes and trace metals in cord blood. Geographic information system (GIS) was utilized to identify the location of, to localize the buffer zones of and to overlap layers on GIS for water treatment plants. Analytical data was integrated and analyzed by Statistical Analysis System (SAS). Results showed that the mean arsenic concentration was 1.49±1.51 µg/L in raw water from the alluvium area and was higher than those from other geologic area (p<0.05). Mean arsenic concentrations in raw water from Yunlin and Chiayi, both located in the alluvium area, were 3.12±1.07 µg/L and 2.87±0.11 µg/L, respectively, relatively higher than those in other regions (p<0.05). Certain trace metals, including As, Be, Co, Cr, Mn, Ni, Tl, V increased levels in finished water after water treatment while others decreased, i.e., Sb, Se, Ag. Within water serving zones with radius of 2, 3 or 4 kilometers, positive correlations were found for trace metals of Be, Cd, U, Mo, Sb between distributed water and cord blood. In summary, these findings in the present study will be helpful for relevant studies in future to further explore the association between trace metals background levels in raw water and the health potential effects in human.

目錄
第一章 前言
1.1研究背景.............................................5
1.2研究目的.............................................6
第二章 文獻回顧......................................7
2.1微量金屬與地質、水文的關係...........7
2.2淨水場淨水流程概述..........................9
2.3重金屬毒性概述................................11
2.4國內、外飲用水水質標準.................15
2.5飲用水中重金屬的健康影響.............17
2.6地理資訊系統概述............................22
2.7 感應耦合電漿質譜儀ICP-MS 原理.25
第三章 材料與方法.................................29
3.1研究設計............................................29
3.2採樣設備............................................32
3.3採樣作業流程(SOP)..........................32
3.4水樣前處理及貯存.............................33
3.5水樣類別............................................33
3.6水樣元素含量分析.............................33
3.6.1檢量線配製法說明..........................33
3.6.2儀器分析條件..................................35
3.6.3分析品質管制 (QA/QC).................35
3.6.4血液樣本收集..................................37
3.6.5血液樣本分析..................................38
3.7地理資訊系統（GIS)..........................39
3.8統計分析.............................................45
第四章 結果與討論..................................46
4.1水樣中金屬濃度含量及其分佈...........46
4.2不同地區之淨水場中金屬濃度分佈...56
4.3 淨水流程差異性對於原水及清水
中金屬濃度比較...................................59
4.4 臍帶血與配水中金屬濃度相關性......61
4.5本研究限制.........................................67
第五章 結論..............................................68
第六章 參考文獻......................................69

參考文獻
Agilent Technologies Inc. Agilent 7500 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry course number H8974A Student Manual Revision 1. USA, 2001;394p.

Asubiojo OI, Nkonoa NA, Ogunsuab AO, et al. Trace elements in drinking and groundwater samples in Southern Nigeria. Sci Total Environ 1997;208:1-8.

ATSDR. Toxicological profile for aluminium. US Department of health and human services, public health service Atlanta, GA 1992.

Australian drinking water guideline 6th . National water quality management strategy endorsed by NHMRC 10 – 11: 2004.

Barton H, Zachwieja Z, Folta M. Predicted intake of trace elements and minerals via household drinking water by 6-year-old children from KrakoÂw (Poland). Part 1: Lead (year 2000). Food Addit Contam 2002;19:906-915.

Barton H. Predicted intake of trace elements and minerals via household drinking water by 6-year-old children from Krako’w, Poland. Part 2: Cadmium, 1997–2001. Food Addit Contam 2005;22:816-828.

Barton H. Predicted intake of trace elements and minerals via household drinking water by 6-year-old children from Krako’w, Poland. Part 3: Aluminium, Food Addit Contam 2008;25:588-603.

Bouchard M, Laforest F, Vandelac L, Bellinger D, Mergler D. Hair manganese and hyperactive behaviors: pilot study of school-age children exposed through tap water. Environ Health Perspect 2007;115:122–7.

Boyd GR, Pierson GL, Kirmeyer GJ, Britton MD, English RJ. Lead variability testing in Seattle public schools, Journal AWWA 2008, 100:2

Bryant SD. Lead contaminate drinking waters in the public schools of Philadelphia. J. Toxicol. 2004;42:287-294.

Curtis DK. Casarett and Doull’s Toxicology-The basic science of poisons. Sixth Edition, McGraw-Hill. Medical Publishing Division, 2001; 1236p.

Chris K. Basic of toxicology. Intelligent communications and the partnership for environmental technology education. Published by John W and Sons, Inc. 1998.

Cucarella C, Montoliu C, Hermenegildo C, et al. Chronic exposure to aluminum impairs neuronal glutamate-nitric oxide-cyclic GMP pathway. J Neurochem 1998;70:1609-1614.

Emsley J. Nature''s building blocks. An A–Z guide to the elements. New York: Oxford University Press; 2001.

Frengstad B, Skrede AKM, Banks D, Krog JR, Siewers U. The chemistry of Norwegian groundwaters: III. The distribution of trace elements in 476 crystalline bedrock groundwaters, as analysed by ICP–MS techniques. Sci Total Environ 2000; 246: 21–40.

Fertmann R, Hentschel S, Dengler D, Janssen U, Lommel A. Lead exposure by drinking water: an epidemiologial study in Hamburg, Germany. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2004; 207(3): 235-244.

Gebel T. Arsenic and antimony: comparative approach on mechanistic toxicology. Chemico-biological interactions 1997;107:131-44.

Guidotti TL, Calhoun T, Davies JO, et al, Elevated lead in drinking water in Washington, DC, 2003-2004: the public health response. Environ Health Perspect 2007;115: 695-701.

Health Canada, Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality 2006.

Health Canada, Guidelines for Canadian drinking water quality. Water treatment principles and applications: a manual for the production of drinking water. Ottawa, Ontario, Health Canada, Environmental Health Directorate. Printed and distributed by Canadian Water and Wastewater Association, Ottawa, Ontario 1993.

Joint Working Group. Canadian Paediatric Society, Dietitians of Canada and Health Canada. Nutrition for Healthy Term Infants. Minister of Public Works and Government Services, Ottawa; 1998

Kunio S, Shinzo K, Sarata KS, and Hideki A. Dose effect for Japanese due to 232Th and 238U in imported drinking water. Physic Health 2004;86:365-373.

Kurttio P, Pukkala E, Kahelin H, Auvinen A, Pekkanen J. Arsenic concentrations in well water and risk of bladder and kidney cancer in Finland. Environ Health Perspect 1999;107:705-710.

Mondal NC, Singh VS, Puranik SC, Singh VP. Trace element concentration in groundwater of Pesarlanka Island, Krishna Delta, India. Environ Monit Assess 2009.

Michael K, William S. Trace and ultratrace metals in bottled waters: Survey of sources worldwide and comparison with refillable metal bottles. Sci Total Environ 2009;407:1089-1096.

McLachlan DR, Bergeron C, Smith JE, Boomer D, Rifat SL. Risk for neuropathologically confirmed Alzheimer''s disease and residual aluminum in municipal drinking water employing weighted residential histories. Neurology 1996;46:401-405.

Neal C. Dissolved beryllium in rainfall, stream and shallow groundwaters in the Upper River Severn catchments, Plynlimon, mid Wales. Sci Total Environ 2003;314–316.

Pinar K, Aysun S, Sait CS. A health risk assessment for exposure to trace metals via drinking water ingestion pathway. Int J Hyg Environ Health 2009;212:216-227.

Paul W, Panjai P, Everett S, Alice H. Antimony leaching from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic used for bottled drinking water. Water Res 2008;42:551-556.

Peng X, Shengbiao H, Zijian W, Gustavo L. Daily intakes of copper, zinc and arsenic in drinking water by population of Shanghai, China. Sci Total Environ 2006;362:50-55.

Ryan PB, Natalie H, David LM. Longitudinal Investigation of Exposure to Arsenic, Cadmium, and Lead in Drinking Water. Environ Health Perspect 2000; 108:731-735.

Rondeau V, Commenges D,Jacqmin GH, Dartigues JF. Relation between aluminum concentrations in drinking water and Alzheimer''s disease: an 8-year follow-up study. Am J Epidemiol 2000;152:59-66.

Raymond-Whish S, Mayer LP, O''Neal T, Martinez A, Sellers MA, Christian PJ, et al. Drinking water with uranium below the U.S. EPA water standard causes estrogen receptor-dependent responses in female mice. Environ Health Perspect 2007;115:1711–6.

Roychowdhury T, Tokunaga H, Ando M. Survey of arsenic and other heavy metals in food composites and drinking water and estimation of dietary intake by the villagers from an arsenic-affected area of West Bengal, India. Sci Total Environ 2003;308:15-35

Shotyk W, Krachler M, Chen B. Contamination of Canadian and European bottled waters with antimony from PET containers. J Environ Monit 2006;8:288-292.

Tamasi G ,Cini R. Heavy metals in drinking waters from Mount Amiata (Tuscany, Italy). Possible risks from arsenic for public health in the Province of Siena. Sci Total Environ 2004;327:41-51.

Taylot TP, Ding M, Ehler DS, Foreman TM, Kaszuba JP, Sauer NN.Beryllium in the environment: a review. J Environ Sci 2003;38:439–69.

Traci C. Distribution System Corrosion and the Lead and Copper Rule: An Overview of AWWARF Research. Advancing the science of water 2005.

USEPA. Drinking water standards. Office of Drinking Water. Washington, DC: US Environmental Protection Agency; 2003.

Versari A, Parpinello GP, Galassi S. Chemometric survey of Italian
bottled mineral waters by means of their labeled physico-chemical and chemical composition. J Food Compost Anal 2002;15:251–64.

Vaessen H, Szteke B. Beryllium in food and drinking water—a summary of available knowledge. Food Addit Contam 2000;27:149–59.

WHO. Antimony in drinking-water―Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. World Health Organization, Geneva 2003.

WHO. Lead in drinking-water―Background document for development of WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. World Health Organization, Geneva 2003.

WHO. Guidelines for drinking water quality. 3rd ed. Geneva: World
Health Organization; 2004

WHO. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, 3rd ed 2006.

WHO. European environment and health information system(ENHIS). Dietary exposure to potentially hazardous chemicals in children’s food. fact sheet; no. 4.5: 2007.

WHO. Aluminium. Geneva, World Health Organization, International Programme on Chemical Safety (Environmental Health Criteria 194) 1997.

Watt GCM, Britton A, Gilmour HG, Moore MR, Murray GD, Robertson SJ. Public Health implications of new guidelines for lead in drinking water: a case study in an area with historically high water Lead Levels. Food Chem Toxicol 2000;38:73-79.

Zaharescu DG, Hooda PS, Soler AP, Fernandez J, Burghelea CI. Trace metals and their source in the catchment of the high altitude Lake Respomuso, Central Pyrenees. Sci Total Environ 2009;470:3546-53.

Zietz B, Vergara JD, Kevekordes S, Dunkelberg H. Lead contamination in tap water of households with children in Lower Saxony, Germany, Sci Total Environ 2001;275:19-26.

江秀梅，殷蘊雯，賴珊湖，侯鈺琪，張月惠，王耀宏譯，Chris Kent：基礎毒理學初版。台北:高立圖書有限公司，2003; 381p。

魏稽生。臺灣經濟礦物，第三卷，臺灣能源礦產及地下水資源。台北：中央地質調查所，2000; 217p。

潭立平，魏稽生。臺灣經濟礦物，第一卷，臺灣金屬經濟礦物。台北：中央地質調查所，1997; 202p。

林敬二譯，司寇克。儀器分析第五版。台北：美亞出版股份有限公司，1999；844p。

陳錦嫣，黃國展。GIS與空間決策分析-Arc GIS入門與進階初版。台北，臺灣：新京文開發出版股份有限公司，2007; 575p。

邱弘毅。台灣西南沿海烏腳病盛行地區及蘭陽盆地居民無機砷代謝能力與健康危害之流行病學研究。台北：國立臺灣大學公共衛生研究所博士論文，1996。

陳冠宇，劉麗純，劉聰桂。西南海岸平原地下水中裡的危險分子-砷與腐植物質。經濟部中央地質調查所-地質-臺灣的山川土石，2008;27:37-42。

黃智昭，賴慈華，江崇榮。臺灣沿海海水入侵問題。經濟部中央地質調查所-地質-臺灣的山川土石，2008;27:31-36。

經濟部水資源統一規劃委員會，臺灣地區地下水資源，45頁：1992。
經濟部水利署：台灣地區水資源調配及開發策略，台北，2004。http://www.wra.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=11733&ctNode=2314&comefrom=lp。引用：2009/4/4。

臺灣自來水公司：自來水淨水流程圖，台中，2008。http://211.79.149.83/ContentView.aspx?id=60。引用：2009/5/26。

臺北自來水事業處：淨水場淨水處理，台水，2008。http://www.twd.gov.tw/Show.aspx?ContentID=198。引用：2009/5/26。

行政院環境保護署：全國環境水質監測資訊網，台北，2009。http://wqshow.epa.gov.tw。引用：2009/5/30。

行政院環保署：飲用水水質標準，台北，2008。
http://share1.epa.gov.tw/epalaw。引用：2009/6/1。