臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

文獻指出婦女懷孕前及懷孕期間體位變化和營養狀況，會影響新生兒的出生體重或增加早產的危險性。本研究目的為探討國內新生兒早產 (出生週數<37週) 和低出生體重 (出生體重<2500g) 的發生，與婦女懷孕前身體質量指數 （body mass index, BMI）、懷孕期間體重增加情形、飲食與血液生化值的相關性。實驗以2005年10月到2006年10月到彰化基督教醫院或順安醫院產檢，懷孕未滿16週的健康孕婦為對象，配合其產前照顧抽血時間，分別在懷孕前期(16週前)、懷孕中期(16週至27週)及懷孕晚期(28至34週)共三次收集其基本資料、血液檢體及體位測量，並以24小時回憶法收集其飲食資料。此外，分娩時收集新生兒與母親的血液和體位資料。母親於生產後依其生產時懷孕週數分為早產組與足月組，或依其出生體重分為低出生體重組與非低出生體重組。共收案451名，平均年齡29.3±4.0歲，52.3%為初產婦；早產率為6.21%，低出生體重率為4.21%。結果發現母親孕期增加總重與熱量和營養素攝取有顯著正相關 (p<0.05)。新生兒出生體重與母親孕期增加總重、蛋白質與磷攝取量、懷孕前期的熱量、維生素B1和B2攝取量和懷孕晚期鈣、鎂、鉀、鐵和鋅攝取量及白血球呈正相關(p<0.05)。新生兒出生體重與懷孕晚期血鐵及生產時血鐵和血鐵蛋白呈負相關(p<0.05)。早產組母親孕期增加總重、膽固醇攝取量、懷孕前期和中期時血鎂濃度、白血球和白蛋白濃度顯著低於足月組 (p<0.05)；而其血鐵蛋白和懷孕前期與生產時血鎂濃度則明顯高於足月組 (p<0.05)。低出生體重組母親孕期增加總重，蛋白質、膽固醇、鈣、磷、鉀、鐵和維生素B2攝取量，白血球和白蛋白濃度顯著低於非低出生體重組 (p<0.05)；而其血鎂和血鐵蛋白濃度則明顯高於非低出生體重組 (p<0.05)。出生體重受母親體重增加影響，而母親體重增加受其熱量與營養素攝取量影響。綜合上述，母親孕期增加總重、懷孕早期體重增加及懷孕晚期白血球、礦物質攝取與鐵營養狀況可能為影響懷孕結果的重要因素。

Recent evidences indicated that maternal pre- pregnancy and pregnancy anthropometrics and nutritional status affect birth weight of neonates and increase the risk of preterm delivery. The aims of this study are to investigate the relationships of pre-pregnancy BMI, gestational weight gain (GWG), dietary intake, and biochemical parameters in women with low birth weight (birth weight<2500g, LBW) and preterm neonates (gestational age <37weeks) in Taiwan. Healthy women (< 16 weeks of gestation), who received prenatal care in Changhua Christian hospital or Shun'an hospital during Octorber 2005 to October 2006 were recruited. Background information, anthropometrics, biochemical parameters, and dietary intake collected by 24 h-recall, with prenatal care blood sampling time,were obtained from the early stage (< 16 weeks of gestation), middle stage (16 to 27 weeks of gestation), and late satge (28 to 34 weeks of gestation) of pregnancy to delivery. Clinical outcomes of neonates were also collected.The mothers divided into the pretem and term group by gestational age at delivery or the LBW and non-LBW group by birth weight of neonates.Total 451 pregnancy women were recruited ( age 29.1±4.2y) with 53.7% of primiparas. The incidences of premature and LBW are 6.21% and 4.31%, respectively. We found that the maternal weight gain was positively correlated with caloric and nutrients intake (p<0.05). Neonatal birth weight was positively correlated with maternal weight gain and intakes of protein and phosphate during pregnancy, intakes of calories, vitamin B1 and B2 in the early stage of pregnancy , and intakes of calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron and zinc, circulating white blood cell counts (WBC) in the late satge of pregnancy. However, neonatal birth weight was negatively correlated with serum iron in the late satge of pregnancy and serum iron and ferritin at the time of delivery. Maternal GWG, cholesterol intake, circulating WBC, serum albumin and serum magnesium in the early and middle stage of pregnancy were significantly lower and that ferritin and serum magnesium in the late satge of pregnancy and delivery were significantly higher in the preterm group than in the term group (p<0.05). Maternal GWG, protein, cholesterol, calcium, phosphorus, potassium, iron and vitamin B2 intake, circulating WBC and serum albumin were significantly lower and that serum magnesium and ferritin were significantly higher in the LBW group than in the non-LBW group (p<0.05). The birth weight of neonates was affected by the weight gain of mothers. The weight gain rate during pregnancy may be affected by energy and nutrients intake of mother. In conclusion, our results showed that total GWG, maternal weight gain in early pregnancy and WBC, mineral intake and iron status in late pregnancy seem to play important roles to affect delivery and neonatal outcomes.

中文摘要 I
英文摘要 III
誌謝 V
目錄 VI
表目錄 XII
圖目錄 XIV
第一章 緒 論 1
第一節 研究動機 2
第二節 研究目的 4
第二章 文獻回顧 5
第一節 懷孕前BMI與懷孕期間體重增加情形 5
第二節 飲食攝取狀況 6
壹、熱量與三大營養素 6
貳、微量營養素 7
一、鐵 8
二、鈣 9
三、鎂 10
四、鋅 11
五、維生素 11
六、綜合微量營養素 12
第三節 血液生化值 13
第四節 結論 15
第三章 材料與方法 16
第一節 研究架構 16
第二節 研究對象 17
第三節 研究流程 18
第四節 研究工具 19
壹、基本資料問卷 19
貳、飲食資料問卷 19
參、資料收集 20
肆、血液生化檢驗方法 21
第五節 資料處理與統計分析 22
壹、資料處理 22
貳、統計分析 22
一、描述性統計 22
二、推論性統計 22
第四章 結果 25
第一節 孕婦與新生兒基本資料 25
壹、全體孕婦基本資料 25
貳、全體孕婦生產結果與新生兒基本資料 25
參、全體孕婦飲食資料 26
一、熱量及營養素攝取情形 26
二、營養素攝取量佔DRIs百分比及達DRIs人數百分比 27
三、補充劑使用情形 27
肆、全體孕婦血液資料 28
一、懷孕期間與生產時全體孕婦血液資料情形 28
二、服用綜合維生素對血液生化值之影響 29
三、營養素攝取對血液生化值之影響 29
伍、全體孕婦各項資料與生產結果之相關性 30
一、熱量和三大營養素與母親體重增加之相關性 30
二、母親體重增加與生產結果之相關性 30
三、母親體重增加及生產結果與飲食及血液生化值相關性 30
(一)母親孕期增加總重與飲食及血液生化值之相關性 30
(二)新生兒出生體重與母親飲食及血液生化值之相關性 31
(三)新生兒出生身長與母親飲食及血液生化值之相關性 31
(四)影響生產結果的因子 32
第二節 教育程度對生產結果之影響 33
壹、各項基本資料與生產結果 33
貳、教育程度對營養素攝取量之影響 33
一、熱量及營養素攝取情形 33
二、教育程度對補充劑攝取之影響 34
參、教育程度對血液生化值之影響 35
第三節 早產及足月組各項資料比較 36
壹、 基本資料 36
貳、孕婦各次體重增加情形 36
參、不含營養補充劑的熱量及營養素攝取情形 37
一、熱量及營養素攝取情形 37
二、營養素攝取量佔DRIs百分比及達DRIs人數百分比情形 37
肆、營養補充劑攝取情形 38
一、營養補充劑攝取 38
二、含營養補充劑的營養素攝取情形 38
三、含補充劑營養素攝取量佔DRIs百分比及達DRIs人數百分比情形 39
伍、孕婦血液生化值之情形 39
第四節 低出生體重及非低出生體重組各項資料比較 41
壹、基本資料 41
貳、孕婦各次體重增加情形 41
參、不含營養補充劑的熱量及營養素攝取情形 42
一、熱量及營養素攝取情形 42
二、營養素攝取量佔DRIs百分比及達DRIs人數百分比情形 42
肆、營養補充劑攝取情形 43
一、營養補充劑攝取 43
二、含營養補充劑的營養素攝取情形 43
三、含補充劑營養素攝取量佔DRIs百分比及達DRIs人數百分比情形 44
伍、孕婦血液生化值之情形 44
第五章 討論 45
第一節 孕婦與新生兒資料 45
壹、全體孕婦基本資料 45
貳、全體孕婦生產結果與新生兒基本資料 45
參、孕婦整體飲食攝取情形 47
一、飲食攝取情形與其他調查之比較 47
二、補充劑使用情形 47
三、營養素攝取量與DRIs的比較 48
肆、孕婦血液生化值情形 49
一、服用綜合維生素對血液生化值之影響 49
二、營養素攝取對血液生化值之影響 49
伍、教育程度對生產結果之影響 49
第二節 孕婦基本與體位資料對生產結果之影響 51
壹、孕婦各項基本資料對生產結果之影響 51
貳、孕婦體位資料對生產結果之影響 51
第三節 孕婦飲食及血液資料對生產結果之影響 53
壹、孕婦熱量、三大營養素與相關血液資料對生產結果之影響 53
貳、孕婦膽固醇攝取量對生產結果之影響 53
參、孕婦維生素攝取量對生產結果之影響 54
肆、孕婦礦物質與相關血液資料對生產結果之影響 54
一、鈣和磷 54
二、鐵 55
三、鋅 56
四、鎂 56
伍、孕婦白血球對生產結果之影響 57
陸、孕婦飲食狀況對生產結果之影響 57
第六章 結論與建議 59
第一節 結論 59
第二節 研究限制 60
第三節 建議 61
第七章 參考文獻 62
壹、中文部分 62
貳、英文部分 64
附錄 145
附錄壹 受試者同意書 145
附錄貳 問卷 148

壹、中文部分

內政部統計處(2006) 內政統計通報-九十五年第二十二週: 94年新生嬰兒生母狀況分析。 sowf.moi.gov.tw/stat/week/week9620.doc
內政部統計處(2006) 內政部統計查詢網. 15歲以上人口教育程度。 http://statis.moi.gov.tw/micst/stmain.jsp?sys=100
白玉莊(2003) 台灣地區新生兒早產與低出生體重之研究。高雄醫學大學公共衛生學研究所碩士論文。
行政院衛生署食品藥物管理局(1998) 1993 - 1996 台灣國民營養健康狀況變遷調查結果。 http://consumer.fda.gov.tw/files/Research/1993%20-%201996/08.pdf
行政院衛生署食品藥物管理局(2004) 台灣地區食品營養資料庫。http://www.fda.gov.tw/TC/siteContent.aspx?sid=285
行政院衛生署食品藥物管理局(2009) 國人膳食營養素參考攝取量。 http://www.fda.gov.tw/TC/siteContent.aspx?sid=285
行政院衛生署食品藥物管理局(2011) 2005 - 2008 台灣國民營養健康狀況變遷調查結果。 http://consumer.fda.gov.tw/Files/doc/4.台灣成人與老人營養素及食物攝取來源之變遷趨勢%20由NAHSIT1993-1996到2005-2008.pdf
李宛臻(2011) 孕婦孕程之生化營養狀況追蹤。中臺灣大學生化科技學系學位論文。
汪忠川和周碧瑟(2001) 青少年與成人媽媽的早產兒有不同危險因子。中華醫學會雜誌，66：511-517。
林筱菁(2007) 婦女懷孕前飲食營養攝取狀態與新生兒體型之相關性研究。臺灣師範大學人類發展與家庭學系學位論文。
國民健康局 (2008) 95年出生通報年報統計表。 http://www.bhp.doh.gov.tw/BHPNet/Web/HealthTopic/TopicArticle.aspx?id=200808200001&parentid=200712250049
張守治、林其和、林毓志和葉純甫(2004) 健保實施後極低出生體重兒之預後及其醫療費用。臺灣兒科醫學會雜誌，1：308-312+350。
張素瓊(1991) 台南地區孕乳婦營養素攝取之調查研究。中華民國營養學會雜誌，16：101- 118。
許祐寧(2004) 婦女懷孕三期飲食狀況、膳食評估法與影響新生兒體型之前瞻性研究分析。臺灣師範大學人類發展與家庭學系學位論文。
許惠琛(2012) 懷孕期飲食營養素攝取量與新生兒體型相關性之探討。中山醫學大學營養學研究所學位論文。
陳保中、 Doyle PE、 何啟功、 張蓓貞和王榮德(2000) 母親危險因子對低出生體重嬰兒、早產兒、及生長遲滯嬰兒之影響--前瞻性懷孕世代研究。中華公共衛生雜誌，19：192-202。
陳保中、 Doyle PE、白璐和王榮德(1999) 父母親社經狀態與低出生體重嬰兒、早產兒、及生長遲滯嬰兒之相關性探討。中華公共衛生雜誌，18：105-115。
陳冠如、蕭寧馨和林璧鳳(2006) 台北地區醫院產檢孕婦的葉酸營養狀況。 臺灣營養學會雜誌，31：8 -16 。
陳姮霏(2000) 懷孕婦女飲食狀況對新生兒體型影響之前瞻性研究。國立台灣師範大學人類發展與家庭研究所碩士論文。
傅瓊瑤、陸振翮、吳欣玫、王銘賢和陳淑貞(2000) 青少女懷孕發生低出生體重與早產的危險性探討。中華公共衛生雜誌，18：228-234。
黃惠瑛和高美丁(1994) 高雄地區孕婦之膳食攝取狀況。中華民國營養學會雜誌，19：295-308。
蕭寧馨和洪正修(1989) 孕婦鐵營養狀況調查。中華民國營養學會雜誌，14：55-61。
韓文蕙、陳麗美和李中一(2003) 臺灣地區早產與低出生體重嬰兒之發生率與預測因素。中華職業醫學雜誌，10：131-141。

貳、英文部分
Abu-Saad K and Fraser D. Maternal Nutrition and Birth Outcomes. Epidemiol. Rev. 2010;32:5–25.
Allen LH. Anemia and iron deficiency: effects on pregnancy outcome. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000;71:1280S–1284S.
Atallah A N, Hofmeyr GJ, and Duley L. Calcium supplementation during pregnancy for preventing hypertensive disorders and related problems (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 4: CD 001059. Update Software, Oxford. 2002.
Bendich A. Micronutrients in women’s health and immune function. Nutrition. 2001;17:858-867.
Berry RJ, Li Z, Erickson JD, Li S, Moore CA, Wang H, Mulinare J, Zhao P, Wong LY, Gindler J, Hong SX, and Correa A. Prevention of neural-tube defects with folic acid in China. China-U.S. Collaborative Project for Neural Tube Defect Prevention. N. Engl. J. Med. 1999 ;341:1485-1490.
Bhutta ZA, Ahmed T, Black RE, Cousens S, Dewey K, Giugliani E, Haider BA, Kirkwood B, Morris SS, Sachdev HP, Shekar M, and Maternal and Child Undernutrition Study Group .What works? Interventions for maternal and child undernutrition and survival. Lancet. 2008;371:417-440.
Briefel RR, Bialostosky K, Kennedy-Stephenson J, McDowell MA, Ervin RB, and Wright JD. Zinc intake of the U.S. Population: findings from the third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988–1994. J. Nutr. 2000;130:1367S-1373S.
Cao C and O'Brien KO. Pregnancy and iron homeostasis: an update. Nutr. Rev. 2013 ;71:35-51.
Castillo-Durán C and Weisstaub G. Zinc Supplementation and Growth of the Fetus and Low Birth Weight Infant. J. Nutr. 2003;133:1494S-1497S.
Caulfield LE, Zavaleta N, Figueroa A, and Leon Z. Maternal zinc supplementation does not affect size at birth or pregnancy duration in Peru. J. Nutr. 1999;129:1563-1568.
Centers for Disease Control. CDC Criteria for anemia in children and childbearing-aged women. MMWR. l989;38:400-404.
Charles DH, Ness AR, Campbell D, Smith GD, Whitley E, and Hall MH. Folic acid supplements in pregnancy and birth outcome: re-analysis of a large randomised controlled trial and update of Cochrane review. Paediatr. Perinat. Epidemiol. 2005 ;19:112-124.
Choo, V. WHO reassesses appropriate body-mass index for Asian populations. Lancet. 2002;360:235.
Christian P, Khatry SK, Katz J, Pradhan EK, LeClerq SC, Shrestha SR, Adhikari RK, Sommer A, and West KP Jr. Effects of alternativematernal micronutrient supplements on low birth weight in rural Nepal: double blind randomized community trial. Br. Med. J. 2003;326:571–574.
Christian P, Khatry SK, Katz J, Pradhan EK, LeClerq SC, Shrestha SR, Adhikari RK, Sommer A, and West K P Jr.. Effects of alternative maternal micronutrient supplements on low birth weight and anaemia in rural Nepal. A double-masked randomized community trial. BMJ. 2003;326:571-576.
Christian P, Shrestha J, LeClerq SC, Khatry SK, Jiang T, Wagner T, Katz J, and West KP Jr. Supplementation with micronutrients in addition to iron and folic acid does not further improve the hematologic status of pregnant women in rural Nepal. J. Nutr. 2003;133:3492–3498.
Cogswell ME, Parvanta I, Ickes L, Yip R, and Brittenham GM . Iron supplementation during pregnancy, anemia, and birth weight: a randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2003;78:773-781
Dietz PM, Callaghan WM, Cogswell ME, Morrow B, Ferre C, and Schieve LA. Combined effects of prepregnancy body mass index and weight gain during pregnancy on the risk of preterm delivery. Epidemiology. 2006;17:170-177.
Duerbeck NB and Dowling DD. Vitamin A: too much of a good thing? Obstet. Gynecol. Surv. 2012;67:122-128.
Edison RJ, Berg K, Remaley A, Kelley R, Rotimi C, Stevenson RE, and Muenke M. Adverse birth outcome among mothers with low serum cholesterol. Pediatrics. 2007;120:723-733.
Fall CHD, Yajnik CS, Rao S, Davies AA, Brown N, and Farrant HJW. Micronutrients and Fetal Growth. J. Nutr. 2003;133:1747S-1756S.
Frederick IO, Williams MA, Sales AE, Martin DP, and Killien M. Pre-pregnancy Body Mass Index, Gestational Weight Gain, and Other Maternal Characteristics in Relation to Infant Birth Weight. Matern. Child Health J. 2008;12:557-567.
Giddens JB, Krug SK, Tsang RC, Guo S, Miodovnik M, and Prada JA. Pregnant adolescent women have similarly low intake of selected nutrients. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2000;100:1334-1340.
Godfrey K, Robinson S, Barker DJP, Osmond C, and Cox V. Maternal nutrition in early and late pregnancy in relation to placental and fetal growth. Br. Med. J. 1996;312:410-414.
Goel A, Jain V, Gupta I, and Varma N. Serial serum ferritin estimation in pregnant women at risk of preterm labor. Acta. Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 2003;82:129-132.
Goldenberg RL and Culhane JF. Low birth weight in the United States. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2007;85:584S–590S.
Goldenberg RL, Culhane JF, Iams JD and Romero R. Epidemiology and causes of preterm birth. Lancet. 2008;371:75-84.
Goldenberg RL, Tamura T, Neggers Y, Copper RL, Johnston KE, DuBard MB, and Hauth JC.The effect of zinc supplementation on pregnancy outcome. JAMA. 1995;274:463–468.
Haider BA, Yakoob MY, and Bhutta ZA. Effect of multiple micronutrient supplementation during pregnancy on maternal and birth outcomes. BMC Public Health. 2011;11:S19 .
Hantoushzadeh S, Jafarabadi M, and Khazardoust S. Serum magnesium levels, muscle cramps, and preterm labor. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 2007;98:153-154.
Herrera E. Lipid metabolism in pregnancy and its consequences in the fetus and newborn. Endocrine. 2002;19:43-55.
Hininger I, Favier M, Arnaud J, Faure H, Thoulon JM, Hariveau E, Favier A, and Roussel AM. Effects of a combined micronutrient supplementation on maternal biological status and newborn anthropometrics measurements: a randomized double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in apparently healthy pregnant women. Eur. J Clin. Nutr. 2004;58:52–59.
Hovdenak N and Haram K. Influence of mineral and vitamin supplements on pregnancy outcome. Eur. J. Obstet. Gynecol. Reprod. Biol. 2012 ;164:127-132
Institute of Medicine, Committee on Nutritional Status During Pregnancy and Lactation. Nutrition during pregnancy. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 1990;272-298.
Jain S, Sharma P, Kulshreshtha S, Mohan G, and Singh S. The Role of Calcium, Magnesium, and Zinc in Pre-Eclampsia. Biol. Trace. Elem. Res. 2010;133:162-170.
Katz J, West KP Jr., Khatry SK, Pradhan EK, LeClerq SC, Christian P, Wu L S-F, Adhikari RK, Srestha SR, and Sommer A. Maternal low-dose vitamin A or beta-carotene supplementation has no effect on fetal loss and early infant mortality: a randomised cluster trial in Nepal. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000;71:1570–1576.
Kawai K, Spiegelman D, Shankar AH, and Fawzi WW. Maternal multiple micronutrient supplementation and pregnancy outcomes in developing countries: meta-analysis and meta-regression. Bull. World Health. Organ. 2011;89:402-411.
Keen CL,Clegg MS, Hanna LA, Lanoue L, Rogers JM, Daston GP, Oteiza P, and Uriu-Adams JY. The plausibility of micronutrient deficiencies being a significant contributing factor to the occurrence of pregnancy complications. J. Nutr. 2003;133:1597S–1605S.
Klemmensen A, Tabor A, Østerdal ML, Knudsen VK, Halldorsson TI, Mikkelsen TB, and Olsen SF. Intake of vitamin C and E in pregnancy and risk of pre-eclampsia: prospective study among 57,346 women. BJOG 2009;116:964-974.
Kramer M S. Determinants of low birth weight: methodological assessment and meta-analysis. Bull. World Health Organ. 1987;65:663-737.
Kramer MS. The Epidemiology of Adverse Pregnancy Outcomes: An Overview. J. Nutr. 2003;133:1592S-1596S.
Kumwenda N, Miotti PG, Taha TE, Broadhead R, Biggar RJ, Jackson JB, Melikian G, and Semba RD. Antenatal vitamin A supplementation increases birth weight and decreases anemia among infants born to human immunodeficiency virus-infected women in Malawi. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2002;35:618-624.
Kurzel RB. Serum magnesium levels in pregnancy and preterm labor. Am. J. Perinatol. 1991;8:119-127.
Lagiou P, Mucci L, Tamimi R, Kuper H, Lagiou A, Hsieh C C and Trichopoulos D. Micronutient intake during pregnancy in relation to birth size. Eur. J. Nutr. 2005;44:52-59.
Liu Y, Dai W, Dai X, and Li Z. Prepregnancy body mass index and gestational weight gain with the outcome of pregnancy: a 13-year study of 292,568 cases in China. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 2012;286:905-911.
Makrides M and Crowther CA. Magnesium supplementation in pregnancy (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 4: CD 000937. Update Software, Oxford. 2002.
Mamun AA, Kinarivala M, O'Callaghan MJ, Williams GM, Najman JM, and Callaway LK. Associations of excess weight gain during pregnancy with long-term maternal overweight and obesity: evidence from 21 y postpartum follow-up. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010;91:1336-1341.
Mamun AA, Kinarivala M, O'Callaghan MJ, Williams GM, Najman JM, and Callaway LK. Associations of excess weight gain during pregnancy with long-term maternal overweight and obesity: evidence from 21 y postpartum follow-up. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2010;91:1336-1341.
Mardones-Santander F, Rosso P, Stekel A, Ahumada E, Llaguno S, Pizarro F, Salinas J, Vial I, and Walter T. Effect of a milk-based food supplement on maternal nutritional status and fetal growth in underweight Chilean women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1988;47:413–419.
Mathews F, Yudkin P, and Neil A . Influence of maternal nutrition on outcome of pregnancy: prospective cohort study. Br. Med. J. 1999;319:339-343.
Merialdi M, Carroli G, Villar J, Abalos E, Gülmezoglu AM, Kulier R, and de Onis M. Nutritional Interventions During Pregnancy for the Prevention or Treatment of Impaired Fetal Growth: an Overview of Randomized Controlled Trials. J. Nutr. 2003;133:1626S–1631S.
Moore VM Davies MJ, Willson KJ, Worsley A, and Robinson JS. Dietary Composition of Pregnant Women Is Related to Size of the Baby at Birth. J. Nutr. 2004;134:1820-1826.
Mori R, Ota E, Middleton P, Tobe-Gai R, Mahomed K, and Bhutta ZA. Zinc supplementation for improving pregnancy and infant outcome. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2012;7:CD000230.
Moutquin JM. Socio-economic and psychosocial factors in the management and prevention of preterm labour. BJOG 2003;110:56-60.
Murakami M, Ohmichi M, Takahashi T, Shibata A, Fukao A, Morisaki N, and Kurachi H. Prepregnancy body mass index as an important predictor of perinatal outcomes in Japanese. Arch. Gynecol. Obstet. 2005;271:311-315.
National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. Antenatal Care: Routine Care for the Healthy PregnantWoman. London: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. 2008.
NeggersY and Goldenberg RL. Some Thoughts on Body Mass Index, Micronutrient Intakes and Pregnancy Outcome . J. Nutr. 2003;133:1737S-1740S.
Nehring I, Schmoll S, Beyerlein A, Hauner H, and von Kries R.Gestational weight gain and long-term postpartum weight retention: a meta-analysis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2011;94:1225-1231.
Osendarp SJ, van Raaij JMA, Arifeen SE, Whed MA, Baqui AK, and Fuchs GJ. A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of the effect of zinc supplementation during pregnancy on pregnancy outcome in Bangladeshi urban poor. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000;71:114–119.
Osrin D and de L Costello AM. Maternal nutrition and fetal growth: practical issues in international health. Semin. Neonatol. 2000;5:209-219.
Pena-Rosas JP, and Viteri FE. Effects and safety of preventive oral iron or iron plus folic acid supplementation for women during pregnancy. Cochrane Database Syst. Rev. 2009;CD0004736.
Petrou S. The economic consequences of preterm birth during the first 10 years of life. BJOG. 2005;112:10–15.
Polyzos NP, Mauri D, Tsappi M, Tzioras S, Kamposioras K, Cortinovis I, and Casazza G. Combined vitamin C and E supplementation during pregnancy for preeclampsia prevention: a systematic review. Obstet. Gynecol. Surv. 2007;62:202-206.
Poston L, Briley AL, Seed PT, Kelly FJ, and Shennan AH. Vitamin C and vitamin E in pregnant women at risk for pre-eclampsia (VIP trial): randomised placebocontrolled trial. Lancet. 2006;367:1145-1154.
Rahimi R, Nikfar S, Rezaie A, and Abdollahi M. A meta-analysis on the efficacy and safety of combined vitamin C and E supplementation in preeclamptic women. Hypertens Pregnancy. 2009;28:417-434.
Ramakrishnan U, Manjrekar R, Rivera J, Gonzales-Cossio T, and Martorell R. Micronutrients and pregnancy outcome: A review of the literature. Nutr. Res. 1999;19:103-159.
Rao R and Georgieff MK. Iron in fetal and neonatal nutrition. Semin. Fetal. Neonatal Med. 2007;12:54-63.
Rao S, Kanade AN, Yajnik CS and Fall, CHD. Seasonality in maternal intake and activity influence offspring’s birth size among rural Indian mothers - Pune Maternal Nutrition Study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2009;38:1094-1103.
Rao S, Yajnik CS, Kanade A, Fall CHD, Margetts BM, Jackson AA, Shier R, Joshi S, Rege S, Lubree H, and Desai B. Intake of micronutrient-rich foods in rural Indian mothers is associated with size of their babies at birth: Pune maternal nutrition study. J. Nutr. 2001;21:1217-1224.
Rasmussen KM and Yaktine AL. Institute of Medicine (U.S.) Committee toReexamine IOM Pregnancy Weight Guidelines. Weight Gain DuringPregnancy: Reexamining the Guidelines. Washington, DC: NationalAcademies Press. 2009.
Rogers I and Emmett P. Diet during pregnancy in a population of pregnant women in South West England. ALSPAC Study Team. Avon Longitudinal Study of Pregnancy and Childhood. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 1998;52:246-250.
Ronnenberg AG, Goldman MB, Chen D, Aitken IW, Willett WC, Selhub J, and Xu X. Preconception homocysteine and B vitamin status and birth outcomes in Chinese women. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002;76:1385-1391.
Ronnenberg AG, Wang X, Xing H, Chen C, Chen D, Guang W, Guang A, Wang L, Ryan L, and Xu X. Low Preconception Body Mass Index Is Associated with Birth Outcome in a Prospective Cohort of Chinese Women. J. Nutr. 2003;133:3449-3455.
Rossander-Hultén L, Brune M, Sandström B, Lönnerdal B, and Hallberg L. Competitive inhibition of iron absorption by manganese and zinc in humans. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1991;54:152-156.
Rosso P and Salas SP . Mechanisms of fetal growth retardation in the underweight mother. In: Nutrient regulation during pregnancy, lactation, and infant growth (Allen, L., King, J. and Lonnerdal, B, eds.), pp. 1–9. Plenum Press, New York. 1994.
Rothman K, Moore LL, Singer MR, Nguyen Uyen-Sa DT, Mannino S, and Milunsky A. Teratogenicity of High vitamin A intake. New Eng. J. Med. 1995;333:1369-1373.
Roughead ZK and Hunt JR. Adaptation in iron absorption: iron supplementation reduces nonheme-iron but not heme-iron absorption from food. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000;72:982-989.
Rumbold A and Crowther CA. Vitamin C supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2005;2:CD004072.
Rumbold A and Crowther CA. Vitamin E supplementation in pregnancy. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2005;2:CD004069.
Savitz DA, Stein CR, Siega-Riz AM, and Herring AH. Gestational weight gain and birth outcome in relation to prepregnancy bodymass index and ethnicity. Ann. Epidemiol. 2011;21:78-85.
Schieve LA, Cogswell M E, Scanlon KS, Perry G, Ferre C, Blackmore-Prince C, Yu SM, and Rosenberg D. Prepregnancy body mass index and pregnancy weight gain: associations with preterm delivery. Obstet. Gynecol. 2000;96:194-200.
Scholl TO and Hediger ML. Anaemia and iron deficiency anaemia: compilation of data on pregnancy outcome. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1994;59:492S-501S.
Scholl TO and Reilly T. Anemia, iron and pregnancy outcome. J. Nutr. 2000;130:443S-447S.
Scholl TO, Hediger ML, Fischer RL, and Shearer JW. Anemia vs iron deficiency: increased risk of preterm delivery in a prospective study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 1992;55:985-988.
Scholl TO. High third-trimester ferritin concentration: associations with very preterm delivery, infection, and maternal nutritional status. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1998;92:161-166.
Scholl TO. Iron status during pregnancy: setting the stage for mother and infant. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005;81:1218S-1222S.
Shah PS and Ohlsson A. Knowledge Synthesis Group on Determinants of Low Birth Weight and Preterm Births. Effects of prenatal multimicronutrient supplementation on pregnancy outcomes: a meta-analysis. CMAJ. 2009;180:E99-E108.
Sharma JB, Sharma A, Bahadur A, Vimala N, Satyam A, and Mittal S. Oxidative stress markers and antioxidant levels in normal pregnancy and pre-eclampsia. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 2006;94:23-27.
Siega-Riz AM, Adair LS, and Hobel CJ. Maternal underweight status and inadequate rate of weight gain during the third trimester of pregnancy increases the risk of preterm delivery. J. Nutr. 1996;126:146-153.
Siega-Riz AM, Hartzema AG, Turnbull C, Thorp J, McDonald T, and Cogswell ME.The effects of prophylactic iron given in prenatal supplements on iron status and birth outcomes: a randomized controlled trial. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 2006;194:512-519.
Siega-Riz AM, Herrmann TS, Savitz DA, and Thorp JM. Frequency of eating during pregnancy and its effect on preterm delivery. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2001;153:647-652.
Simchen MJ, Dulitzky M, Mashiach S, Friedman SA, and Schiff E. Adjustment of magnesium sulfate infusion rate in patients with preterm labor. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 1998;179:994-998.
Smolarczyk R, Wojcicka-Jagodzinska J, Romejko E, Piekarski P, Czajkowski K, and Teliga J. Calcium-phosphorus-magnesium homeostasis in women with threatened preterm delivery. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 1997;57:43-48.
Spatling L and Spatling G. Magnesium supplementation in pregnancy: a double blind study. Br. J. Obs. Gyn. 1988;95:120-125.
Spinillo A, Capuzzo E, Piazzi G, Ferrari A, Morales V, and Di Mario, M. Risk for spontaneous preterm delivery by combined body mass index and gestational weight gain patterns. Acta. Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. 1998;77:32-36.
Steer PJ. Maternal hemoglobin concentration and birth weight. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000; 71:1285S-1287S.
Stein A D, Zybert PA, van de Bor M, and Lumey LH. Intrauterine famine exposure and body proportions at birth: the Dutch Hunger Winter. Int. J. Epidemiol. 2004;33:831-836.
Stein Z and Susser M . The Dutch famine, 1944-1945, and the reproductive process. I. Effects or six indices at birth. Pediatr. Res. 1975;9:70-76.
Stotland NE, Caughey AB, Lahiff M, and Abrams B. Weight gain and spontaneous preterm birth: the role of race or ethnicity and previous preterm birth. Obstet. Gynecol. 2006;108:1448-1455.
Takimoto H, Yoshiike N, Katagiri A, Ishida H, and Abe S. Nutritional status of pregnant and lactating women in Japan: Acomparison with non-pregnant/non-lactating controls in the national nutrition survey. J. Obstet. Gynaecol. Res. 2003;29:96-103.
Tsai IH, Chen CP, Sun FJ, Wu CH, and Yeh SL. Associations of the pre-pregnancy body mass index and gestational weight gain with pregnancy outcomes in Taiwanese women. Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 2012;21:82-87.
Turner RE, Langkamp-Henken B, Littell RC, Lukowski MJ, and Suarez M F. Comparing nutrient intake from food to the estimated average requirements shows middle- to upper-income pregnant women lack iron and possibly magnesium. J. Am. Diet. Assoc. 2003;103:461-466.
Tzeng MS, Shen JR, Kao MD and LIN JR. Measuring Nutrient Intakes of Taiwanese Young Children by Using 24 our Dietary Recall From Caregivers. Fourth International Conference on Dietary Assessment Methods; 2000 Sep 17-20; Tuscon, USA. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002.
UNICEF and WHO. Low birthweight country, regional and global estimates. http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/low_birthweight_from_EY.pdf. 2004.
United Nations Children’s Fund, World Health Organization, United Nations University. Composition of a Multi-Micronutrient Supplement to be used in Pilot Programmes among Pregnant Women in Developing Countries: Report of a UNICEF, WHO, UNU Workshop. New York: UNICEF.1999.
United Nations Children's Fund. Iron deficiency anaemia assessment, prevention, and control: a guide for programme managers. (WHO/NHD/01.3). Geneva: World Health Organization. 2001.
Vahratian A, Siega-Riz AM, Savitz DA and Thorp JM Jr. Multivitamin Use and the Risk of Preterm Birth. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2004;160:886-889.
Vandevijvere S, Amsalkhir S, Oyen HV, Ines E, and Moreno-Reyes R. Iron Status and Its Determinants in a Nationally Representative Sample of Pregnant Women. J. Acad. Nutr. Diet. 2013; doi: 10.1016/j.jand.2012.10.021.
Villar J and Belizan JM. Same nutrient, different hypotheses: disparities in trials of calcium supplementation during pregnancy. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2000;71:1375S-1379S.
Villar J and Repke JT. Calcium supplementation during pregnancy may reduce preterm delivery in high risk populations. Am. J. Obs. Gyn. 1990;163:1124-1131.
Villar J, Merialdi M, Gülmezoglu A M, Abalos E, Carroli G, Kulier R, and de Onis M. Nutritional interventions during pregnancy for the prevention or treatment of maternal morbidity and preterm delivery. An overview of randomized controlled trials. J. Nutr. 2003;133:1606S-1625S.
Wen SW, Smith G, Yang Q and Walker M. Epidemiology of preterm birth and neonatal outcome. Semin. Fetal Neonatal Med. 2004;9:429-435.
Williams RL, Creasy, RK, Cunningham GC, Hawes WE, Norris FD, and Tashiro M. Fetal growth and perinatal viability in California. Obstet. Gynecol. 1982;59: 624-632.
Wirbelauer J, Thomas W, Rieger L and Speer CP. Intrauterine growth retardation in preterm infants ≤32 weeks of gestation is associated with low white blood cell counts. Am. J. Perinatol. 2010;27:819-824.
Wojcicka-Jagodzinska J, Romejko E, Piekarski P, Czajkowski K, Smolarczyk R, and Lipinski T. Second trimester calcium-phosphorus-magnesium homeostasis in women with threatened preterm delivery. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 1998;61:121-125.
Woollett LA. Maternal cholesterol in fetal development: transport of cholesterol from the maternal to the fetal circulation. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 2005;82:1155-1161.
Yakoob MY and Bhutta ZA. Effect of routine iron supplementation with or without folic acid on anemia during pregnancy. BMC Public Health. 2011;11:S21.
Zeng L, Dibley MJ, Cheng Y, Dang S, Chang S, Kong L, and Yan H.. Impact of micronutrient supplementation during pregnancy on birth weight, duration of gestation, and perinatal mortality in rural western China: double blind cluster randomised controlled trial. Br .Med. J. 2008;337:a2001.
Zhou LM, Yang WW, Hua JZ, Deng CQ, Tao X, and Stoltzfus RJ. Relation of hemoglobin measured at different times in pregnancy to preterm birth and low birth weight in Shanghai, China. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1998;148:998-1006.