臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

有鑑於字詞搭配能力在第二語言使用上的重要性，本研究分析以中文為母語的英語學習者在口語及寫作語料中所犯的字詞搭配錯誤。研究問題有三：(一)學習者在口語及寫作中所使用的字詞搭配類別為何？(二) 在學習者的口語及寫作語料中，每一類字詞搭配的錯誤比率為何? (三) 根據學習者所犯的錯誤，何種搭配詞(動詞、形容詞、名詞、副詞)在口語及寫作中造成最大的困難?
本研究的口語及寫作的語料來自於臺灣一所科技大學的一位英語老師自行編纂的學習者語料庫。從其語料庫中，研究者抽取26位大三英語主修生在「進階聽力與會話」課中創造出的口語語料。寫作的語料則來自於另外26位大三英語主修生在「進階英語寫作」課中的作業。首先，研究者閱讀每一篇作文及每一份口語語料的謄錄稿，標示出六類字詞搭配(LC1:動詞+名詞; LC2:形容詞+名詞; LC3:名詞+動詞; LC4:名詞1+of+名詞2; LC5:副詞+形容詞; LC6:動詞+副詞)。接著，研究者參考「牛津英文字詞搭配辭典」和「現代美式英語線上語料庫」來擷取待分析的字詞搭配，所有在語料庫中找得到的字詞搭配均需高於MI值(mutual information) 3分。研究者將任何不能在上述兩項工具中找到的字詞搭配標示為錯誤。
接著，研究者計算每一類字詞搭配的類型-標記比率，以明瞭字詞搭配的多樣性。研究者再將每一類的錯誤數量除以該類的字詞搭配總數，以得出錯誤比率。最後，為了找出最困難的搭配詞，研究者先訂正語料中誤用的動詞、形容詞、名詞、副詞等搭配詞，再把已修正過的搭配詞依其語義範疇、功能或關係來分類。錯誤數量最多的那一類即為最困難的。
研究結果顯示：學習者在兩種語料中創造出最多的LC1和LC2，但是它們的多樣性卻最低。相反地，在寫作語料中，LC4數量最少，多樣性卻最高；而在口說語料中，LC4的數量雖最少，LC6的多樣性卻最高。在兩種語料中，LC4的錯誤比率最高，而LC5的錯誤比率最低。至於困難的搭配詞，研究結果
ii
顯示：在口語及寫作語料中LC1中表示活動的動詞搭配詞最為困難；LC2的限定形容詞最具挑戰性。至於LC3，口語語料中錯誤最多的是表示活動的動詞搭配詞而寫作語料中錯誤最多的則是使役動詞。學習者創造LC4的最大困難在於誤用介詞及複合名詞，其次是抽象名詞具體化的誤用。最後，學習者在寫作語料中最常犯的LC6錯誤是程度副詞。本研究的結果提升了學習者對於自己所創造出的字詞搭配模式的覺知。英語教師可以針對學習者較感困難的搭配詞來教導學生，以增進學生使用英語字詞搭配的能力。

In view of the importance of collocational knowledge in learners’ use of a second language, this study analyzed Chinese EFL learners’ production of lexical collocations in their speech and writing. Three research questions were addressed: (a) What categories of lexical collocations do Chinese EFL learners use in their spoken and written production? (b) What is the error rate of each lexical collocation category in learners’ spoken versus written data? (c) Based on the identified lexical collocation errors, what collocates (verbs, adjectives, nouns and adverbs) tend to cause difficulties in these learners’ spoken and written production?
The two sources of data came from a course instructor’s self-compiled learner corpora at a university of science and technology in Taiwan. The spoken data were retrieved from 26 English-major juniors’monologic speech in their Advanced Listening and Conversation course. The written data consisted of another 26 students’ academic essays completed in their Advanced English Writing course. First, the researcher examined each essay and each transcript of learners’ speech to locate the six categories of lexical collocations (LC1: verb+noun; LC2: adjective+noun; LC3: noun+verb; LC4: noun1+of+noun2; LC5: adverb+adjective; LC6: verb+adverb). Then, the researcher consulted the Oxford collocations dictionary for students of English and Corpus of Contemporary American English to identify target collocations to be analyzed. Each target collocation found in the online corpus had to reach an MI (mutual information) score of 3. Any target collocation which could not be found in the above two references was marked as an error.
After identifying the target collocations and errors, the researcher calculated the type-token ratio of each LC category to know its collocational variety. Then, error
rates were obtained by dividing the total number of errors in each category of collocations by the total number of collocations in that category. To extract difficult collocates in each category, the researcher first corrected each erroneous collocation and then classified the corrected verb, adjective, adverb, and noun collocates into different semantic domains, functions, or relations. The classified type with the most error tokens under each LC category was regarded as most challenging for learners.
The results revealed LC1 (verb+noun) and LC2 (adjective+noun) as most commonly produced in both corpora, but their collocational types as measured in the type-token ratio were least varied. By contrast, LC4 (noun1+of+noun2) was least produced in both corpora but most varied in writing whereas LC6 was most varied in speaking. Regarding the error rates, in both corpora, LC4 (noun1+of+noun2) had the highest error rate whereas LC5 (adverb+adjective) the lowest. The results of difficult collocates showed that in LC1 (verb+noun), activity verb collocates were most difficult in both language modes. For LC2 (adjective+noun), the function of determining adjectives was most challenging. For LC3 (noun+verb), the greatest difficulty occurred in activity verb collocates in speaking but causative verb collocates in writing. Regarding LC4 (noun1+of+noun2), most error tokens were found in the misuse of prepositions and compound nouns. Also challenging was the relation of reification. Finally, the difficulty in LC6 (verb+adverb) in the written data resulted from degree adverb collocates. The results of this study contribute to learners’ awareness of their collocational patterns and problematic categories of lexical collocations in their spoken and written production. Language teachers can then target the semantic domains of difficult collocates to improve learners’ production of lexical collocations.

Table of Contents
中文摘要 ...................................................................... i
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................ iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................... v
Table of Contents ....................................................................................................... vi
List of Tables............................................................................................................. viii
List of Figures............................................................................................................. ix
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION ........................................................................ 1
The Importance of Collocational Competence .................................... 2
Relation between Collocational Knowledge and Language Production ............. 4
Research Gaps and Purposes of the Study ........................................ 6
Significance of the Study ........................................................ 7
Definitions of Key Terms ....................................................... 8
Organization of the Thesis ...................................................... 9
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................... 10
The Concept of Collocation .................................................... 10
Types of Word Combinations and Collocational Continuums ............................10
Common Definitions of Collocation and its Main Properties .............................14
Theoretical Framework for this Study .................................................................17
The Role of Collocation in Learning a Second Language ......................... 19
Importance of Collocational Knowledge .............................................................20
The Relation between Collocation and Language Proficiency............................22
EFL Learners’ Difficulties in Learning Collocations...........................................24
Spoken Language and Written Language ........................................ 28
Features of Spoken and Written Languages.........................................................29
Lexical Use in Spoken and Written Languages ...................................................31
Corpus-based Research on Lexical Use...............................................................33
CHAPTER THREE METHOD............................................................................... 37
Data Sources .................................................................. 37
Profile of the Spoken Corpus...............................................................................37
vii
Profile of the Written Corpus...............................................................................39
References .................................................................... 39
Data Analysis ................................................................. 40
Identification and Categorization of Lexical Collocations ..................................41
Identification of Errors and Calculation of Error Rates.......................................43
Extraction of Difficult Collocates ........................................................................48
CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS.................................................................................. 58
Quantitative Results of Categories of Lexical Collocations ....................... 58
Findings of Error Rates in the Spoken and Written Data .......................... 63
Findings of Difficult Collocates for Each Category .............................. 65
Difficult Verb Collocates for LC1 (verb+noun)...................................................66
Difficult Adjective Collocates for LC2 (adjective+noun)....................................69
Difficult Verb Collocates for LC3 (noun+verb)...................................................71
Difficult Noun Collocates for LC4 (noun1+of+noun2).......................................73
Difficult Adverb Collocates for LC6 (verb+adverb)............................................76
CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION ....................................... 78
Summary of Key Findings ..................................................... 78
Discussion .................................................................... 79
Usage of Lexical Collocations in Speaking and Writing.....................................80
Comparison across the Six Categories of Lexical Collocations ..........................83
Identification of Target Collocations and Judgments of their Accuracy..............87
Pedagogical Implications ....................................................... 89
Limitations of the Study and Suggestions for Future Research .................... 92
Conclusion .................................................................... 93
REFERENCES.......................................................................................................... 94
APPENDIX A English and Chinese Consent Forms ........................................... 103
APPENDIX B Erroneous Verb Collocates for LC1 (verb+noun)....................... 105
APPENDIX C Erroneous Adjective Collocates for LC2 (adjective+noun)........116
APPENDIX D Erroneous Verb Collocates for LC3 (noun+verb) ...................... 122
APPENDIX E Erroneous Noun Collocates for LC4 (noun1+of+noun2)........... 124
APPENDIX F Erroneous Adverb Collocates for LC6 (verb+adverb) ............... 126
List of Tables
Table 1. Howarth’s collocational continuum.............................................................. 13
Table 2. Lexical Collocations Categorized by Benson et al. ...................................... 17
Table 3. The modified categorization of lexical collocations ..................................... 18
Table 4. Semantic domains of verb collocates in LC1 and LC3................................. 50
Table 5. Functions of adjective collocates in LC2...................................................... 52
Table 6. Classification of noun collocates in LC4 ...................................................... 54
Table 7. Classification of adverb collocates in LC6 ................................................... 56
Table 8. Types and tokens of lexical collocation in the spoken data .......................... 59
Table 9. Types and tokens of lexical collocation in the written data .......................... 61
Table 10. Error rate of each category of lexical collocation in the spoken corpus ..... 63
Table 11. Error rate of each category of lexical collocation in the written corpus ..... 64
Table 12. Difficult verb collocates for LC1 in the spoken and written corpora.......... 66
Table 13. Difficult adjective collocates for LC2 in the sopoken and written corpora 69
Table 14. Difficult verb collocates for LC3 in the spoken and written corpora.......... 72
Table 15. Difficult noun collocates for LC4 in the spoken and written corpora......... 74
Table 16. Difficult adverb collocates for LC6 in the written corpus .......................... 76
List of Figures
Figure 1. Wood’s collocational continuum ................................................................. 12
Figure 2. Examples of the MI scores of collocations in COCA ................................. 42
Figure 3. Procedures to idendify erroneous collocations............................................ 45

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