臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

豆腐為最受歡迎的東方傳統食品之一。然而，豆腐產品的保存期限由於離水而受限，其中又以盒裝豆腐離水現象最為明顯。以大豆蛋白為基質包覆著高達90 %水的盒裝豆腐而言，於儲存期間微細結構、流變特性以及水的移動性和分佈之變化對於離水應有影響。聚麩胺酸 (poly- γ- glutamic acid, γ- PGA) 具水溶性和可食性，於食品加工中可以當作保水劑及品質改良劑。本研究以分子、結構和巨觀等三個層次探討於十六天儲存期間盒裝豆腐的物化特性之變化並探討添加γ-PGA (Na) 的影響。
盒裝豆腐的製作是以0.30%葡萄糖酸內酯 (Glucono-δ-lactone, GDL) 作為凝結劑，配合添加不同濃度 (0.10%、0.15%及0.20%) 之高分子量 (1000-1500 kDa)、中分子量 (600-800 kDa) 與低分子量 (200-400 kDa) 的γ-PGA (Na)。盒裝豆腐的組成分為89% 水分、 3.5%蛋白質、 2.7% 脂質及0.5% 灰分。藉由離心作用方式 (3100×g、75 min、4℃) 可將豆腐內水區分為expressible water (83%) 及 entrapped water (17%)。儲存期間盒裝豆腐內的expressible water含量由17%減少為12%而entrapped water含量由83% 增加至 88%。盒裝豆腐之水分子狀態亦根據核磁共振儀 (nuclear magnetic resonance, NMR) 之spin-spin relaxation time (T2) 分析區分成低移動性水分子 (T21 ~19 ms) 及高移動性水分子 (T22 ~90 ms)與相對應的質子強度A1 (6.05×107) 和A2 (93.95×107)。儲存期間盒裝豆腐內的T21 及 A1 呈現增加趨勢，而 T22及A2則呈現下降趨勢。另外，儲存初期盒裝豆腐的微結構呈現大孔洞且連續的蜂窩狀結構，而於儲存十六天後呈現多孔且緻密的結構。盒裝豆腐之流變特性G及G”於儲存初期呈現下降趨勢，而儲存十六天後則呈現增加趨勢。故儲存期間盒裝豆腐微結構的改變造成黏彈性的增加，且結構的變化導致豆腐內水分子狀態重新分布進而影響離水。
添加γ-PGA (Na) 可使盒裝豆腐的離水由17%下降至10%以下，其中添加γ-PGA (Na) 的分子量和濃度愈高效果愈佳。添加γ-PGA (Na) 會增加盒裝豆腐內entrapped water以及低移動性水分子部分的水含量，以及降低盒裝豆腐的G及G值，且隨著添加γ-PGA (Na) 的分子量和濃度的增加有顯著性的變化。γ-PGA (Na) 盒裝豆腐呈現較不連續的結構，且γ-PGA (Na) 是以類似圓形薄膜包覆於豆腐內的蛋白質連續網狀結構中。故添加γ-PGA (Na) 造成豆腐微結構改變進而改變黏彈性，導致水分子狀態重新分布，又γ-PGA (Na) 具有保水性，進而延緩離水現象。另外，儲存期間γ-PGA (Na) 豆腐內水分子狀態的變化與添加γ-PGA (Na) 之分子量和濃度有關。γ-PGA豆腐於儲存期間由孔洞大小不均一且較不連續的結構改變成為較小孔洞且緊密的結構，而微結構的變化導致豆腐黏彈性明顯增加。

Tofu is one of the most popular foods in the traditional oriental diet. However, the shelf-life of tofu is limited due to syneresis, especially in the packed tofu. Packed tofu is a soy protein matrix which contains about 90% of moisture. Changes of the microstructure, rheological properties, and the distribution and mobility of water in packed tofu during storage might contribute to the syneresis. Poly-γ-glutamic acid (γ-PGA) is a water soluble and edible substance, and its derivatives can be added in the processed foods as water holding agent and texture enhancer. The objectives of this study were to investigate the changes of the physicochemical properties of packed tofu during storage under molecular, structural and macroscopic levels; and to study the effect of γ-PGA (Na) addition on the physicochemical properties of packed tofu during 16-d storage.
Tofu was made by using 0.30% glucono-δ-lactone as the coagulant with the addition of different concentrations (0.10%, 0.15%, and 0.20%) and molecular weights (1000-1500 kDa, 600-800 kDa, and 200-400 kDa) of γ-PGA. The compositions of packed tofu were 89% moisture, 3.5% protein, 2.7% lipid, and 0.5% ash. Water in tofu was divided into expressible water (83%) and entrapped water (17%) using centrifugation (3100×g for 75 min at 4℃). The amount of expressible water in tofu decreased from 17% to 12% but that of entrapped water increased from 83% to 88% during 16-d storage. The state of water in tofu was also classified into two fractions based on the spin-spin relaxation time (T2) measured by nuclear magnetic resonance. T21 (19 ms) and T22 (90 ms) represented low and high water mobility in tofu, respectively, and their corresponding proton intensities were A1 (6.05×107) and A2 (93.95×107). The values of T21 and A1 increased but that of T22 and A2 decreased in packed tofu during 16-d storage. The microstructure of tofu showed a uniform and continuous honeycomb-like structure in the early stage of storage, and became porous but compact after 16-d storage. The rheological properties, storage modulus (G) and loss modulus (G), of tofu decreased during the early stage of storage but increased after 16-d storage. The above results revealed that the changes in tofu microstructure during storage caused an increase in the viscoelasticity of tofu, resulting in a redistribution between two water states in tofu.
The syneresis of packed tofu was reduced from 17% to 10% when the γ-PGA (Na) was added. The effect was more pronounced in the addition of γ-PGA with higher molecular weight and concentration. The amount of entrapped water and water in low mobility fraction of packed tofu increased but the values of G and G decreased when γ-PGA (Na) was added. The effect was different for the γ-PGA with different molecular weight and concentration. Packed tofu with γ-PGA (Na) addition showed a discontinuous structure with a film like γ-PGA (Na) entrapped within the protein network. The above results revealed that the addition of γ-PGA (Na) in packed tofu would alter the microstructure and rheological properties of tofu and cause the redistribution of the state of water, resulting in the decrease of syneresis. The microstructure of γ-PGA (Na) packed tofu was changed from the non-uniform pores and discontinuous network to the small pores and compact structure during 16-d storage, and leading to the increase of tofu viscoelasticity.

目錄

第一章 前言 1
第二章 文獻回顧 3
壹、 大豆 3
一、 大豆蛋白 4
二、 大豆蛋白凝膠機制與凝膠之影響因子 7
貳、 豆腐 19
一、 豆腐之製備與種類 19
二、 豆腐凝膠機制 24
參、 常見食品內水的狀態之測定方法 24
一、 示差掃描熱分析儀 (DSC) 之分析 27
二、 離心方式之分析 28
三、 核磁共振儀 (NMR) 之分析 28
肆、 黏彈性食品結構之測定方法 38
一、 動態流變儀 (Dynamic Rheometer) 之分析 39
二、 掃描式電子顯微鏡 (SEM) 之分析 43
伍、 豆腐質地之影響因子 46
一、 加工條件 46
二、 凝固劑種類與添加條件 48
三、 添加物 53
四、 儲存 54
陸、 γ-聚麩胺酸 (γ-polyglutamic acid，γ-PGA) 55
第三章 材料與方法 58
壹、 試驗架構 58
貳、 試驗材料 60
一、 試驗樣品 60
二、 試驗藥品 60
三、 儀器設備 60
參、 試驗方法 61
一、 大豆浸泡時間之分析 61
二、 原料豆漿與盒裝豆腐之製備 61
三、 一般成分分析 64
(一)、 水分 64
(二)、 粗蛋白 64
(三)、 粗脂肪 65
(四)、 灰分 66
四、 豆腐離水之分析 66
五、 水分子狀態之測定 67
(一)、 離心方式之分析 67
(二)、 水的移動性之分析 69
六、 流變特性之分析 72
(一)、 溫度掃描 (Temperature sweep) 72
(二)、 時間掃描 (Time sweep) 72
(三)、 頻率掃描 (Frequency sweep) 73
七、 質地分析 73
八、 微結構之分析 74
九、 統計分析 74
第四章 結果與討論 75
壹、 大豆之成分分析 75
貳、 大豆之最適浸泡時間 75
參、 試驗盒裝豆腐之物化特性 76
一、 豆腐組成分及質地特性之分析 79
二、 豆腐離水之測定 83
三、 豆腐水分子狀態之分析 83
(一)、 離心方式之測定 83
(二)、 水分子移動性之測定 86
四、 豆腐微結構之分析 90
五、 豆腐流變特性之分析 92
(一)、 盒裝豆腐的凝膠行為 92
(二)、 盒裝豆腐的膠體網狀結構特性 93
六、 試驗盒裝豆腐儲存時物化特性之變化 96
肆、 添加物對盒裝豆腐物化特性之影響 103
一、 γ-PGA (Na) 豆腐之水分含量 103
二、 γ-PGA (Na) 豆腐之離水 104
三、 γ-PGA (Na) 豆腐之水分子狀態 104
(一)、 離心方式之測定 104
(二)、 水分子移動性之測定 110
四、 γ-PGA (Na) 豆腐之微結構 113
五、 γ-PGA (Na) 豆腐之流變特性 114
六、 討論 123
伍、 添加物對盒裝豆腐儲存期間物化特性之影響 124
第五章 結論 147
第六章 未來研究方向 149
第七章 參考文獻 150
附錄 168

表目錄

表一、本研究豆腐製作所採用之大豆一般成分分析 77
表二、自製及市售盒裝豆腐的組成分和離水 81
表三、自製及市售盒裝豆腐的質地特性 82
表四、離心力對儲存期間盒裝豆腐expressible water含量的影響 85
表五、盒裝豆腐內的水分子移動性及相對應質子強度於4℃儲存16天之變化 100
表六、盒裝豆腐物化特性之變異數分析 108
表七、不同分子量及濃度的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐內的水分子移動性及相對應質子強度的影響 111
表八、不同分子量及濃度的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐製作中加熱凝膠時流變特性的影響 120
表九、不同分子量及濃度的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐流變特性的影響 122
表十、不同分子量及濃度的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐內的水分子移動性於4℃儲存16天之變化的影響 131
表十一、不同分子量及濃度的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐內水分子之質子強度於4℃儲存16天之變化的影響 132
表十二、不同分子量及濃度的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐流變特性於4℃儲存16天之變化的影響 146


圖目錄

圖一、7S球蛋白分子圖示 (βαα形式) 6
圖二、11S球蛋白分子、三聚體及六聚體圖示 9
圖三、Fine-stranded及coarse-aggregated網狀結構之示意圖 12
圖四、不同CaSO4•2H2O濃度製備豆腐的網狀結構 15
圖五、鈣離子誘導絲狀及粒狀大豆蛋白冷凝膠體形成之機制 18
圖六、豆漿及豆腐之製造流程圖 20
圖七、葡萄糖酸-δ-內酯水解為葡萄糖酸之結構圖 23
圖八、以GDL及CaS04為凝固劑之大豆蛋白凝膠機制 26
圖九、質子的核自旋及核磁矩 31
圖十、質子於外加磁場作用下所產生的旋進運動 32
圖十一、90度脈衝對質子淨磁量之影響 33
圖十二、倒轉-回覆法的脈衝序列 35
圖十三、CPMG的脈衝序列 36
圖十四、不同濃度CaSO4作為凝固劑之豆腐微結構 51
圖十五、不同熱處理對盒裝豆腐微結構的影響 52
圖十六、γ-聚麩胺酸的基本單元 56
圖十七、試驗架構示意圖 59
圖十八、原料豆漿與盒裝豆腐製備流程圖 63
圖十九、離心方式分析用的豆腐樣本製備流程圖 68
圖二十、NMR T2 測量用的豆腐樣本製備流程圖 71
圖二十一、大豆於浸泡時之吸水量 78
圖二十二、利用公式 (9) 預測豆腐內的質子強度 88
圖二十三、盒裝豆腐內水分子的T2 relaxation time 和相對應的質子強度 89
圖二十四、盒裝豆腐之微結構 91
圖二十五、盒裝豆腐製作中加熱凝膠之變化 94
圖二十六、盒裝豆腐之流變特性 95
圖二十七、盒裝豆腐內的expressible water及entrapped water 含量於4℃儲存16天之變化 99
圖二十八、盒裝豆腐微結構於4℃儲存16天之變化 101
圖二十九、盒裝豆腐流變特性於4℃儲存16天之變化 102
圖三十、不同分子量及濃度的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐水分含量之影響 106
圖三十一、不同分子量及濃度的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐離水之影響 107
圖三十二、不同分子量及濃度的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐內expressible water 和entrapped water含量的影響 109
圖三十三、不同分子量及濃度的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐內水分子質子強度的影響 112
圖三十四、不同濃度的高分子量的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐微結構之影響。 115
圖三十五、不同濃度的中分子量的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐微結構之影響 116
圖三十六、不同濃度的低分子量的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐微結構之影響 117
圖三十七、不同濃度的高分子量γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐製作中加熱凝膠之變化的影響 118
圖三十八、不同分子量及濃度的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐流變特性影響 121
圖三十九、不同分子量及濃度的γ-PGA (Na) 添加對盒裝豆腐內的expressible water 和entrapped water含量於4℃儲存16天之變化的影響 126
圖四十、添加0.10%的高分子量γ-PGA (Na) 對盒裝豆腐微結構於4℃儲存16天之變化之影響 135
圖四十一、添加0.15%的高分子量γ-PGA (Na) 對盒裝豆腐微結構於4℃儲存16天之變化之影響 136
圖四十二、添加0.20%的高分子量γ-PGA (Na) 對盒裝豆腐微結構於4℃儲存16天之變化之影響 137
圖四十三、添加0.10%的中分子量γ-PGA (Na) 對盒裝豆腐微結構於4℃儲存16天之變化之影響 138
圖四十四、添加0.15%的中分子量γ-PGA (Na) 對盒裝豆腐微結構於4℃儲存16天之變化之影響 139
圖四十五、添加0.20%的中分子量γ-PGA (Na) 對盒裝豆腐微結構於4℃儲存16天之變化之影響 140
圖四十六、添加0.10%的低分子量γ-PGA (Na) 對盒裝豆腐微結構於4℃儲存16天之變化之影響 141
圖四十七、添加0.15%的低分子量γ-PGA (Na) 對盒裝豆腐微結構於4℃儲存16天之變化之影響 142
圖四十八、添加0.20%的低分子量γ-PGA (Na) 對盒裝豆腐微結構於4℃儲存16天之變化之影響 143

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