臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

論文名稱
: 「先聽再讀」策略對小學生英文聽力理解的效益
校所組別 : 國立高雄師範大學英語學系碩士班
指導教授 : 蘇碧瓊博士
研 究 生 : 許華蓁

論文內容摘要:
本研究旨在探討不同方式的教學策略對不同英文程度的國小學生英語聽力之影響，其研究重心是比較兩種不同的教學策略 – 「邊聽邊讀」及「先聽再讀」 對高、中、低三個不同程度組別的小學生英語聽力理解的效益。此外，藉由兩份問卷，探討學生的英語學習經驗、英語聽力問題及對整個實驗成效的自我評估。
本研究對象是高雄縣中正國小兩班六年級共64位學生。A班為控制組，B班為實驗組。控制組接受傳統「邊聽邊讀」策略教學，而實驗組則接受「先聽再讀」策略教學。經過英語聽力成就前測後，這些學生被分為高、中、低三組。實驗前，學生們先填寫第一份問卷，探討他們的英語學習經驗及英語聽力問題。14週後，這些學生接受聽力後測，並再填寫問卷調查。
實驗結果摘要如下：
1. 大部份高、中程度組別的小學生曾接受過一至五年的英文補習教育，但大多數的學生回家後很少複習英文。在英文聽力問題方面，高程度組學生在聽力方面沒有任何問題。中、低程度組學生表示在聽力過程中有不懂的單字及容易忘記剛聽過的內容。
2. 後測結果顯示實驗組的英語聽力程度優於控制組(p=.045 < .05)。在三項測驗項目中，實驗組中的高成就小組在「單字」部份表現優於控制組中的高成就小組(p=.000 < .05)。
3. 控制組學生認為「邊聽邊讀」策略對他們的英文聽力有助益。
4. 實驗組學生也同樣表示「先聽再讀」策略對他們的英文聽力有助益。
5. 控制組學生認為「邊聽邊讀」策略可以幫助他們聽時更專心並記得聽力內容，但是對他們克服其他英文聽力困難，如緊張、缺乏信心及排斥英聽則沒有幫助，且不具挑戰性。而實驗組學生則認為「先聽再讀」策略可以幫助他們記得聽力內容及對英語聽力較有信心，而對於他們克服其他英文聽力困難，如分心、緊張及排斥英聽則沒有幫助，但是他們認為這個策略具有挑戰性。
本研究顯示「先聽再讀」策略對小學生英語聽力理解有助益，因此，本研究建議國小英語教師可適時運用於教學中來提昇學生的英語聽力理解。

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the study is to explore the effects of two different teaching strategies, “listening and reading” and “listening before reading”, on the listening comprehension of elementary students with different achievement levels. Also probed were students’ responses to two questionnaires on their English learning experience, listening comprehension difficulties, and their attitudes and self-evaluation toward the experiment.
Sixty-four six-graders from two classes of Chung-Cheng Elementary School in Kaohsiung County participated in this study and were divided into the control group and the experimental group. The control group received the traditional “listening and reading” strategy; the experimental group, the “listening before reading” strategy. The instruments applied in the study included instruction materials, listening comprehension achievement pre-test and post-test and three questionnaires. Based on their scores of the listening comprehension achievement pre-test, the subjects were classified into three groups – the high achievement group (HAG), the middle achievement group (MAG), and the low achievement group (LAG). Before the experiment, the subjects filled out a questionnaire on their English learning experience and listening difficulties.
After 14 weeks, all of the subjects took the listening comprehension achievement post-test. In addition, both groups filled out a second questionnaire. The main findings of this study are as follows:
1.The majority of subjects in the MAG and HAG had received tutoring instruction, ranging from 1 year to 5 years. However, most of them hardly reviewed English after school. As to the listening comprehension difficulties, the subjects in the HAG did not have any problems in listening. Whereas, the subjects in the MAG and LAG had greater difficulties in recognizing unfamiliar words and easily forgetting the heard messages.
2.The experimental group scored significantly better than the control group (p=.046 < .05) in their listening comprehension achievement post-test. Among the three achievement groups, the experimental HAG performed significantly better than the control HAG in the part of “vocabulary” (p=.000 < .05).
3.The control group regarded the “listen and reading” strategy helpful to their listening comprehension.
4.The experiment group also agreed that the “listening before reading” strategy was helpful to their listening comprehension.
5.The control group agreed that the “listen and reading” strategy helpful in paying more attention to the listening context and retaining the heard message. However, they felt it not helpful in overcoming other listening difficulties, such as anxiety, lack of confidence and rejection of listening. Nor did they regard it challenging. On the other hand, the students in the experimental group regarded the “listening before reading” strategy helpful in retaining the heard messages and building their confidence in listening comprehension. However, they were still affected by distraction, anxiety and rejection during listening. Yet, they thought the strategy was challenging.
The result indicated that the “listening before reading” strategy did benefit the elementary students in their listening comprehension. Therefore, the researcher suggests that English teachers in elementary school apply the “listening before reading” strategy in class in order to improve students’ listening comprehension ability.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Acknowledgements……………………………………………………………… i
Chinese Abstract………………………………………………………………….. ii
English Abstract………………………………………………………………….. iv
Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………. vi
List of Tables……………………………………………………………………... ix
List of Figures……………………………………………………………………. xi

CHAPTER ONE
1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………… 1
1.1 Background and Motivation……………………………………………. 1
1.2 Purposes of the Study…………………………………………………... 3
1.3 Research Questions…………………………………………………….. 4
1.4 Significance of the Study………………………………………………. 4
1.5 Definition of Terms…………………………………………………….. 5
1.6 Limitations of the Study………………………………………………... 6

CHAPTER TWO
2. Literature Review...…………………………………………………………... 7
2.1 Importance of Listening in Language Learning………………………... 7
2.2 Process of Listening……………………………………………………. 8
2.3 Factors Affecting Listeners’ Comprehension…………………………... 11
2.3.1 Listener Factors……………………………………………………. 12
2.3.1.1 Attention…………………………………………………. 12
2.3.1.2 Anxiety…………………………………………………... 13
2.3.1.3 Self-confidence…………………………………………... 14
2.3.2 Speaker Factors…………………………………………………….. 15
2.3.3 Material and Medium Factors……………………………………… 16
2.4 Relationship between Listening and Reading………………………….. 17
2.4.1 “Listening and Reading” Strategy…………………………………. 19
2.4.2 “Listening before Reading” Strategy………………………………. 20
2.5 Language Learning Strategy…………...………………………………. 21
2.5.1 Importance of Listening Strategy in Language Teaching………….. 22
2.5.2 Listening for Perception…………………………………………… 23
2.5.3 Oral Repetition…………………………………………………….. 24
2.5.4 Short-Term Memory……………………………………………….. 26
2.5.5 Input to Intake Process…………………………………………….. 27
2.6 Previous Studies Related to Listening Difficulties among EFL Students…………………………………………………………………
29

CHAPTER THREE
3. METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………………... 34
3.1 Subjects………………………………………………………………… 34
3.2 Instruments……………………………………………………………... 36
3.2.1 Instruction Materials……………………………………………….. 36
3.2.2 Listening Comprehension Achievement Pre-test and Post-test……. 37
3.2.3 Questionnaires……………………………………………………... 38
3.3 The Pilot Study…………………………………………………………. 39
3.4 The Design of the Experiment…………………………………………. 40
3.4.1 “Listening and Reading” Strategy for the Control Group……….... 41
3.4.2 “Listening before Reading” Strategy for the Experimental Group... 41
3.5 Procedures……………………………………………………………… 45
3.6 Data Analysis…………………………………………………………... 46

CHAPTER FOUR
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION……………………………………………… 48
4.1 Subjects’ Listening Experience………………………………………… 48
4.1.1 Subjects’ Experience in Learning English…………………………. 48
4.1.2 Subjects’ Studying Hours……………………………….................. 49
4.1.3 Listening Comprehension Problems Encountered by Different Achievement Groups……………………………………………….
50
4.1.3.1 Listening Comprehension Problems Related to Listening Materials…………………………………………………..
51
4.1.3.2 Listening Comprehension Problems Related to Listener Factors………………………………………………….… 52
4.1.3.3 Listening Comprehension Problems Related to External Factors……………………………………………………. 53
4.2 Effects of “Listening and Reading” and “Listening before Reading”…. 54
4.3 The Attitudes of the Subjects toward the Two Teaching Strategies……. 57
4.4 Subjects’ Responses to the Listening Comprehension Difficulties…….. 62
4.5 Discussion……………………………………………………………… 65

CHAPTER FIVE
5. CONCLUSIONS…………………………………………………………….. 73
5.1 Summary of Findings…………………………………………………... 73
5.2 Pedagogical Implications………………………………………………. 74
5.3 Suggestions for Future Research……………………………………….. 76

REFERENCES...................................................................................................... 78

APPENDIXES
Appendix A Teaching Materials for the Pre-test………………….…………. 91
Appendix B Teaching Materials for the Post-test……………………………. 93
Appendix C Listening Comprehension Achievement Pre-test………………. 95
Appendix D Listening Comprehension Achievement Post-test………….…. 98
Appendix E Questionnaire One : Background Information…………………. 101
Appendix F Questionnaire Two – Control Group’s Attitudes toward
“Listening and Reading” Strategy…………………………... 102
Appendix G Questionnaire Three – Experimental Group’s Attitudes toward
“Listening before Reading” Strategy……………………….. 104

LIST OF TABLES

Page
Table 3.1 Distribution of the Students at Different Achievement levels………. 35
Table 3.2 Performance of the Control Group and the Experimental Group in the Listening Comprehension Achievement Pre-test………………..
35
Table 3.3 Levene’s Test for Equality of Variance between the Two Groups…... 35
Table 3.4 Comparison of Vocabulary Teaching Steps for the Control and the Experimental Groups………………………………………………...
43
Table 3.5 Comparison of Dialogue Teaching Steps for the Control and the Experimental Groups………………………………………………...
44
Table 4.1 Subjects’ Years of Receiving English Tutoring……………………... 49
Table 4.2 The Amount of Time that Subject Spent on Studying English After School………………………………………………………………..
50
Table 4.3 Subjects’ Listening Comprehension Problems Related to Listening Materials……………………………………………………………...
51
Table 4.4 Subjects’ Listening Comprehension Problems Related to Listener Factors…………………………………………..................................
52
Table 4.5 Subjects’ Listening Comprehension Problems Related to External Factors…………………………………………..................................
53
Table 4.6 Performance of the Control Group and the Experimental Group in the Listening Comprehension Achievement Post-test……..………..
54
Table 4.7 Comparison of the Control HAG and the Experimental HAG in the Listening Comprehension Achievement Post-test………………….
55
Table 4.8 Comparison of the Control MAG and the Experimental MAG in the Listening Comprehension Achievement Post-test…………………
56
Table 4.9 Comparison of the Control LAG and the Experimental LAG in the Listening Comprehension Achievement Post-test…………………...
57
Table 4.10 Responses of the Control Group to the Effects of “Listening and Reading” Strategy..............................................................................
59
Table 4.11 Responses of the Experimental Group to the Effects of “Listening before Reading” Strategy…………………………………………..
61
Table 4.12 Responses of the Control Group to the Listening Comprehension Difficulties…………………………………………………………...
63
Table 4.13 The Responses of the Experimental Group to the Listening Comprehension Difficulties…………………………………..……..
64


LIST OF FIGURES

Page
Figure 3.1 Procedures of Conducting this Study…………………………...... 46

REFERENCE

教育部 (1998): 國民教育階段九年一貫課程總網網要。教育部編印。
Anderson, A., & Lynch, T. (1988). Listening. New York: Oxford University Press.
Anderson, J. R. (1983). The architecture of cognition. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
Anderson, J. R. (1990). Cognitive psychology and its implications (3rd edition). New York:Freeman.
Asher, J. J. (1969). The total physical response approach to second language learning. The Modern Language Journal, 53, 3-17.
Berne, J. E. (1998). Examining the relationship between L2 listening research, pedagogical theory, and practice. Foreign Language Annals, 31(2), 167-190.
Boyle, J. P. (1984). Factors affecting listening comprehension. ELT Journal, 38(1), 34-38.
Brindley, G. (1998). Assessing listening abilities. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 18, 171-191.
Brown, G. (1990). Listening to Spoken English. New York: Longman.
Brown, G., & Yule, G. (1983). Teaching the spoken language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, H. D. (1987). Principles of language learning and teaching (2nd Ed.). Presntice-Hall, Inc.
Brownell, J. (1996). Listening: Attitudes, principles and skills. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Buck, G. (1992). Listening comprehension: construct validity and trait characteristics. Language Learning, 42(3), 313-357.
Buck, G. (2001). Assessing listening. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Byrnes, H. (1984). The role of listening comprehension: A theoretical base. Foreign Language Annals, 17, 317-329.
Call, M. E. (1985). Autitory short-term memory, listening comprehension, and the input hypothesis. TESOL Quarterly, 19(4), 765-781.
Campell, C., & Ortiz, J. (1991). Helping students overcome foreign language anxiety: a foreign language anxiety workshop. In E. K. Horwitz & D. J. Young, (Eds.), Language anxiety: from theory and research to classroom implication (pp. 153-168). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Carroll, J. B. (1972). Defining language comprehension. In R. O. Freedle & J. B. Carroll (Eds.), Language comprehension and the acquisition of knowledge (pp. 1-29). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Carroll, J. B. (1977). On learning from being told. In M. C. Wittrock (Ed.), Learning and instruction (2nd Ed., pp. 496-512). Berkeley, CA: McCutchan.
Cazden, C. (1988). Classroom discourse: The language of teaching and learning. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Celce-Murcia, M. (1995). Discourse analysis and the teaching of listening. In G. Cook & B. Seidlhofer (Eds.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics (pp. 363-377). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D. M., & Goodwin, J. M. (1996). Teaching pronunciation: A reference for teachers of English to speakers of other languages. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cervantes, R., & Gainer, G. (1992). The effects of syntactic simplification and repetition on listening comprehension. TESOL Quarterly, 26(4), 767-770.
Chamot, A.U., & Kupper. L. (1989). Learning strategies in foreign language instruction. Foreign Language Annals, 22, 13-24.
Chan, Y. C., & Wu, G. C. (2004). A study of foreign language anxiety of EFL elementary school students in Taipei County. Journal of National Taipei Teachers College, 17(2), 287-320.
Chao, J. A. (2006). Effects of reading vocabulary aloud on the English learning and attitudes of EFL elementary school low achievers. Master’s thesis, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan.
Chastain, K. (1976). Developing second-language skills: Theory to practice (2nd ed.). Chicago: Ran McNally College Publishing.
Chen, M. F. (2003). The role of motivation on EFL students’ listening comprehension in Taiwan. Master’s thesis, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Taiwan.
Chen, M. L. (2002). The effects of repetition and pictures at different time periods on the listening comprehension of senior high students in Taiwan. Master’s thesis, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Taiwan.
Chen, Y. C. (2003). A study of choral reading on EFL students’ spoken abilities and reading miscue types. Master’s thesis, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Taiwan.
Cheng, C. H. (2002). Effects of listening strategy instruction on junior high school students. Master’s thesis, National Tsinghua University, Taiwan.
Cheng, Y. P. (2003). An investigation of listening difficulties encountered by EFL Students in senior high schools. Master’s thesis, National Chunghua University of Education, Taiwan.
Chu, S. H. (2004). The effects of vocabulary and question type instructions on listening comprehension of EFL elementary school students. Master’s thesis, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan.
Clark, H. H., & Clark, E. V. (1977). Psychology and language. New York: Harcour Brace Jovanovich.
Clément, R., & Kruidenier, B. G. (1985). Aptitude, attitude and motivation in second language proficiency: a test of Clément's model. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 4, 21-37.
Clément, R., Dornyei, Z., & Noel, K. A. (1994). Motivation, self-confidence, and group cohesion in the foreign language classroom. Language learning, 44(3), 417-448.
Cohen, A. (1990). Language learning: Insights for learners, teachers, and researchers. New York: Newbury House/Harper & Row.
Corder, S. P. (1967). The significance of learner’s errors. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching, 5, 161-170.
Cowan, N. (1997). Attention and memory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
De Casper, A. J., & Spence, M. (1986). Prenatal maternal speech influences newborns’ perceptions of speech sounds. Infant Behaviour and Infant Development, 9, 133-50.
Dornyei, Z. (1994). Understanding L2 motivation: on with the challenge! The Modern Language Journal, 78(4), 515-523.
Dornyei, Z. (2001). Teaching and Researching Motivation. England: Pearson Education Limited.
Dunkel, P. (1991). Listening in the native and second/foreign language: toward an integration of research and practice. TESOL Quarterly, 25(3), 431-457.
Ellis, R. (1985). Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ferguson, C. (1971). Absence of copula and the notion of simplicity: A study of normal speech, baby talk, and pidgins. In D. Hymes (Ed.), Pidginization and creolization in language (pp. 141-150). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Feyten, C. M. (1991). The power of listening ability: an overlooked dimension in language acquisition. The Modern Language Journal, 75, 173-180.
Field, J. (2003). Promoting Perception: Lexical Segmentation in L2 Listening. ELT Journal, 57, 325-333.
Flowerdew, J. (Ed.). (1994). Academic listening: Research perspectives. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Flowerdew, J., & Miller, L. (1992). Student Perception, Problems and Strategies in SL Comprehension. Journal of Language Learning and Research in South Asia, 23(2), 60-80.
Flowerdew, J., & Miller, L. (1996). Lectures in a Second Language: Notes towards a Cultural Grammer. English for Specific Purposes, 2, 121-140.
Flowerdew, J., & Miller, L. (2005). Second language listening: theory and Practice. Cambridge University Press.
Foder, J. A., Bever, T. G., & Garrett, M. F. (1974). The psychology of language. New York: maGraw-Hill.
Foss, K. A., & Reitzel, A. G. (1988). A relational model for managing second language anxiety. TESOL Quarterly, 22, 437-454.
Gagne, R. M. (1985). The conditions of learning. (4th edition). New York: CBS college Publishing.
Ganschow, L., Sparks, R., Anderson, R., Javorshy, J., Skinner, S., & Patton, J. (1994). Differences in language performance among high-, average-, and low-anxious college foreign language learners. Modern Language Journal, 78(1), 41-55.
Garrods, S. (1986). Language comprehension in context: a psychological perspective. Applied Linguistics 7(3), 226-238.
Garvie, E. (1990). Story as vehicle. England: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Gary, J., & Gary, N. (1981). Caution: talking may be dangerous to your linguistic health. The case for a much greater emphasis on listening comprehension in foreign language instruction. IRAL, 19(1), 1-14.
Gass, S. (1997). Input, interaction, and the second language learner. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Gleason, J. B. (2005). The development of language. Pearson Education.
Goh, C. (2000). A cognitive perscpective on language learners’ listening comprehension problems. System, 28(1), 55-75.
Hardley, A. O. (2001). Teaching language in context (3rd edition). Heinle & Heinle.
Harmer, J. (1998). How to teach English. England: Longman.
Hatch, E. (1983). Psycholinguistics: A second language perspective. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Howatt, A., & Dakin, J. (1974). Language laboratory materials, ed. J. P. B. Allen, S. P. B. Allen, and S. P. Corder.
Huang, C. Y. (2005). The effects of English learning magazines on listening and reading abilities on vocational high school EFL students. Master’s thesis of National Kaohsiung Normal University
Huang, T. L. (2003). The effect of listening strategy instruction for junior high school students in Taiwan. Master’s thesis, National Normal University, Taiwan.
Hyslop, N. B. (1988). Listening: are we teaching it, and if so, how? Eric Digest. ED295132.
Joiner, E. (1986). Listening in the foreign language. In B. H. Wing (Ed.), Listening, reading, and writing: Analysis and application (pp. 43-70). Middlebury, VT: Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages.
Kailani, T. Z. (1998). Reading aloud in EFL revised. Reading in a Foreign Language, 12(1), 281-294.
Krashen, S. D. (1980). The input hypothesis. The Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics, James E. Alatis (Ed.), 168-180. Washington, D. C. Georgetown University Press.
Krashen, S. D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Pergamon Press.
Krashen, S. D. (1985a). Applications of psycholinguistic research to the classroom. In C. James (Ed.), Practical applications of research in foreign language teaching (pp. 51-66). Lincolnwood, IL: National Textbook Co.
Krashen, S. D. (1985b). The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. Harlow: Longman.
Krashen, S. D., & Terrel, T. (1983). The natural approach: language acquisition in the classroom. San Francisco: Pergamon.
Leabuer, R. S. (1984). Using Lecture Transcripts in EAP Lecture Comprehension Courses. TESOL Quarterly, 18, 41-54.
Leaver, B. L., Ehrman, M., & Shekhtman, B. (2005). Achieving success in second language acquisition. UK: Cambridge University Press.
Lewis, M. (1999). How to study foreign languages. Macmillan Press.
Lin, Y. L. (2003). Repetition as a means of measuring EFL listening comprehension. Master’s thesis, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Taiwan.
Littlewood, W. (1998). Foreign and second language learning. Cambridge University Press.
Liu, M. (2006). Extensive or repeated listening? A comparison of their effects on the use of listening strategies. Retrieved August 30, 2007, from http://lib.csghs.tp.edu.tw/中山學報第六期光碟版/05-1.pdf.
Long, D. (1989). Second language listening comprehension: A schemata-theoretic perspective. Modern Language Journal, 73, 32-40.
Loschky, L. (1994). Comprehensible input and second language acquisition: What is the relationship? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 16, 303-323.
Lund, R. J. (1991). A comparison of second language listening and reading comprehension. The Modern Language Journal, 75. 196-204.
Lundsteen, S. W. (1979). Listening: Its impact at all levels on reading and the other language arts.Urbana, Ill: National Council of Teachers of English.
Lynch, T. (1998). Theoretical perspective on listening. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 18, 3-19.
Ma, Y. M. (2004). The effect of different approaches to repetition strategy instruction on the listening comprehension of junior high school students in Taiwan. Master’s thesis, National Chengchi University, Taiwan.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1989). Anxiety and second-language learning: Toward a theoretical clarification. Language Learning, 39(2), 251-275.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Gardner, R. C. (1991). Methods and results in the study of anxiety and language learning: A review of the literature. Language Learning 41, 85-117.
Mendelsohn, D. J. (1984). There ARE strategies for listening. TEAL Occasional Papers, 8, 63-76.
Mendelson, D. J. (1994). Learning to listen: A strategy-based approach for the second language learner. San Diego: Dominie Press.
Mendelsohn, D. J. (1998). Teaching Listening. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 18, 81-101.
Meyer, R. (1984). “Listen my children, and you shall hear…”. Foreign Language Annals, 17, 343-344.
Milheim, W. (1996). Interactivity and computer-based instruction. Journal of Educational Technology systems, 24(3), 225-233.
Miller, G. A. (1956). Input and second language acquisition theory. In Input and second language acquisition, Susan Gass and Carolyn Madden (Eds.), 377-393. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House.
Morley, J. (1984). Listening and language learning in ESL: Developing self-study activities for listening comprehension. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Morley, J. (1991). Listening comprehension in second/foreign language instruction. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (pp.81-106). New York: Newbury House.
Mueller, G. A. (1980). Visual contextual cues and listening comprehension: An experiment. Modern Language Journal, 64, 335-340.
Murphy, J. M. (1991). Oral communication in TESOL: Integrating speaking, listening, and pronunciation. TESOL Quarterly, 25(1), 51-74.
Nord, J. R. (1981). Three steps to listening fluency: A beginning. In H. Winitz (Eds), the comprehension approach to foreign language instruction (pp. 69-100). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Nuttall, C. (1996). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. London: Heinemann Educational Books.
O’Malley, J. M., & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
O’Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., & Kupper, L. (1989). Listening comprehension strategies in second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 10(4), 418-437.
Osada, N. (2004). Listening comprehension research: a brief review of the past thirty years. Dialogue, 3, 53-66.
Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Oxford, R. L. (1993). Research update on teaching listening. System, 21, 205-211.
Oxford, R. L., & Crookall, D. (1989). Research on language learning strategies: methods, findings, and instructional issues. Modern Language Journal, 73, 404-419.
Oxford, R., & Shearin, J. (1994). Language learning motivation: Expanding the theoretical framework. The Modern Language Journal, 78(1), 12-28.
Pearson, P. D., & Fielding, L. (1983). Instructional implications of listening comprehension research. Urbana, Illinois: Center for the Study of Reading.
Pica, T. (1994). Research on negotiation: What does it reveal about second-language learning conditions, processes, and outcomes? Language Learning, 44, 493-527.
Postovsky, V. A. (1974). Effects of delay in oral practice at the beginning of second language leaerning. Modern Language Learning, 58, 229-239.
Prator, C. (1991). Corner stones of method and names for the profession. In Celce-Murcia (ed.) Teaching English, Heinle & Heinle..
Read, J. (2000). Assessing vocabulary. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rees, A. L. W. (1980). Reading aloud – suggestions for classroom procedure. English Language Teaching Journal, 14(2), 112-121.
Richards, J. C. (1983). Listening comprehension: Approach, design, procedure. TESOL Quarterly, 17, 219-240.
Rivers, W. M. (1966). Listening comprehension. Modern Language Journal, 50(4), 196-202.
Rivers, W. M. (1983). Speaking in many tongues: essays in foreign-language teaching (3rd edition). Cambridge University Press.
Rixon, S. (1990). Developing Listening Skills. London: Macmillan.
Rost, M. (1990). Listening in language learning. London: Longman.
Rost, M. (2002). Teaching and Researching Listening. London, UK: Longman.
Rubin, J. (1995). An overview to a guide for the teaching of second language listening. In D. J. Mendelsohn., & J. Rubin (Eds.), A guide for the teaching of second language listening (pp. 7-11). San Diego: Dominie Press.
Rubin, J., Quinn, J., & Enos, J. (1988). Improving foreign language listening comprehension. Report prepared for the U.S. Department of Education, International Research and Studies Program, Washington, DC. (Project No. 017AH70028).
Samuels, S. J. (1984). Factors influencing listening: Inside and outside the head. Theory to Practice, 23, 183-189.
Scarcella, R. C., & Oxford, R. L. (1992). The tapestry of language learning: The individual in the communicative classroom. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.
Schmidt, R. (1990a). Attention. In P. Robinson (Eds.) Cognition and second language instruction pp.3-32. Cambridge: Cambridge University Express.
Schmidt, R. (1990b). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11, 129-158.
Scott, W. A., & Ytreberg, L. H. (1990). Teaching English to children. New York: Longman.
Scovel, T. (1978). The effect of affect on foreign language learning: a review of the anxiety research. Language Learning, 28(1), 129-142.
Skehan, P. (1998). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford University Press.
Spielberger, C. D. (1966). Theory and research on anxiety. In C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety and behavior (pp. 3-20). New York: Academic Press.
Stevick, E. W. (1986). Images and options in the language classroom. Cambridge University Press.
Tannen, D. (1989). Talking voices: Repetition, dialogue, and imagery in conversational discourse. Cambridge University Press.
Taylor, S. E. (1964). Listening: What research says to the teacher. Washington, DC: National Education Association.
Thompson, I., & Rubin, J. (1996). Can strategy instruction improve listening comprehension? Foreign Language Annals, 29(3), 331-342.
Tomlin, R. S. (1994). Repetition in second language acquisition. In B. Johnston (ed.), Repetition in Discourse Interdisciplinary Perspectives, 1, 172-194. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Underwood, M. (1989). Teaching Listening. London: Longman.
Ur, P. (1984). Teaching Listening comprehension. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Vandergrift, L. (1999). Facilitating second language listening comprehension: acquiring successful strategies. ELT Journal, 53(3), 168-176.
Vandergrift, L. (2002). It was nice to see that our predictions were right: Developing Metacognition in L2 Listening Comprehension. Canadian Modern Language Review,58, 555-575.
Vogely, A. (1995). Perceived strategy use during performance on three authentic listening comprehension tasks. Modern Language Journal, 73, 41-56.
Voss, B. (1979). Hesitation phenomena as sources of perceptual errors for non-native speakers. Language and Speech, 22(2): 129-144.
Weinstein, C. E., & Mayer, R. E. (1986). The teaching of learning strategies. Handbook of research on teaching. New York: Macmillan.
Wenden, A. (1987). Incorporating learner training in the classroom. In A. Wenden and J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning (pp. 159-168). Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall.
Winitz, H. (1978). Teaching language as communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Wipf, J. (1984). Strategies for Teaching Second Language Listening Comprehension. Foreign Language Annals,17, 345-348.
Wolvin, A. D. (1986). Listening in the native language. In B. Wing (Ed.), Listening, reading,writing: Analysis and application (pp. 43-70). Reports of the Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages. Middlebury, VT: Northeast Conference.
Wu, J. R. (2004). The effects of pictures at different time periods on the listening comprehension of junior high school students in Taiwan. Master’s thesis, National Chengchi University, Taiwan.
Young, J. (1991). Creating a low anxiety classroom environment: What does language anxiety research suggest? Modern Language Journal 75(4), 426-437.
Yuan, D. Z. (1989). Chinese Scientists: Difficulties in Comprehending English Science Lectures. MA Thesis, Los Angeles: UCLA.
Yousif, A. A. (2006). Listening comprehension difficulties as perceived by. J. King Saud Univ., 19, 35-47.