臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

「知識分化」概念是由Lewandowsky與Kirsner（2000）首次提出，認為人類在獲得知識的過程中會將知識拆解成釵h部分，分別存放在不同的知識封包（parcel）裡，同時這些封包中的知識極有可能是相互矛盾的，個體會依照情境線索（context）而選擇要使用那個封包中的知識加以反應；此一現象原先在專家知識的研究中被發現，而後又陸續在函式學習（function learning）、類別學習（category learning）中觀察到同樣的現象，顯示知識分化是普遍存在於人類認知歷程中；然而，Yang與Lewandowsky（2003, 2004）都發現到並非所有受試者都會產生知識分化現象，為解釋此個別差異存在的原因，本研究中欲以工作記憶容量（working memory capacity）做為預測的變項，檢驗是否與知識分化現象有關。我們在此沿用Yang與Lewandowsky（2003, 2004）中的類別結構，於實驗一中檢驗工作記憶容量與類別學習表現間的關係，發現工作記憶容量小者並無法學會實驗中的類別結構，而其他人皆能適當地學到真正的類別邊界；而實驗二與實驗三中則是一致地發現工作記憶容量大者不會發生知識分化的現象，但是其他人則普遍使用知識分化的策略；雖然工作記憶容量與類別學習表現（學習正確率/轉換答案次數）間的關係並非十分強烈，不過或閉O因其他因素混淆了實驗結果所致。本研究初步探索了知識分化現象個別差異產生之因素，未來可繼續探討工作記憶容量與知識分化現象間關連性發生的層面為何，或是引入其他能解釋此個別差異之變項，如個人動機、先前經驗等等，期能累積更多和知識分化現象有關的證據和知識。

As the description of Chinese abstract.

緒論 1
文獻回顧 3
專家知識中的知識分化現象 3
函式學習中的知識分化現象 4
同質與異質性類別表徵 10
類別作業中的知識分化現象 13
作業難度與知識分化現象 16
個別差異與知識分化現象 17
工作記憶理論 19
工作記憶容量理論 20
工作記憶容量的測量 21
工作記憶容量與各項認知作業間的關係 25
工作記憶廣度與知識分化之關係 28
實驗一 30
受試者 31
刺激材料與實驗設備 31
實驗程序 33
實驗結果與討論 35
信度 35
運算廣度作業 35
類別學習作業：學習階段 36
類別學習作業：測驗階段 40
實驗二 48
受試者 49
刺激材料與實驗設備 49
實驗程序 49
實驗結果與討論 49
運算廣度作業 49
類別學習作業：學習階段 50
類別學習作業：測驗階段 51
實驗三 61
受試者 61
刺激材料與實驗設備 62
實驗程序 63
實驗結果與討論 65
運算廣度作業 65
類別學習作業：學習階段 65
類別學習作業：測驗階段 66
綜合分析 77
綜合討論 82
工作記憶容量與類別學習作業 83
情境線索之無關程度 83
樣本大小 83
解釋範圍 84
影響層次 85
其他預測指標 86
受試者抽樣 86
與先前研究間之比較 87
Baddley（1976）理論 87
Conway等人（2001）的研究 87
研究限制 88
未來研究方向 88
結論 89
參考文獻 90
附錄 96
一、工作記憶容量計分方式 96
二、運算記憶廣度作業指導語 98
三、類別學習作業指導語 99

參考文獻
林清山（1992）。心理與教育統計學。台北：東華。
Aha, D. W., & Goldstone, R. L. (1992). Concept learning and flexible weighting. In J. K. Kruschke (Ed.), Proceedings of the fourteenth annual conference of the Cognitive Science Society (pp. 534-539). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Baddeley, A. D. (1986). Working memory. Oxford: Oxford University.
Baddeley, A. D., & Hitch, G. (1974). Working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 8, 47-89). New York: Academic Press.
Barrouillet, P., Bernardin, S., & Camos, V. (2004). Time constraints and resource sharing in adults'' working memory spans. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 133, 83-100.
Case, R. (1974). Structures and strictures, some functional limitations on the course of cognitive growth. Cognitive Psychology, 6, 544-573.
Case, R., Kurland, M.D., & Goldberg, J. (1982). Operational efficiency and the growth of short-term memory. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 33, 386-404.
Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. (1973). The mind’s eye in chess. In W. G. Chess (Ed.), Visual information processing. New York: Academic Press.
Conway, A. R. A., Cowan, N., & Bunting, M. F. (2001). The cocktail party phenomenon revisited: The importance of working memory capacity. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 8, 331-335.
Conway, A. R. A., & Engle, R. W. (1996). Individual differences in working memory capacity: More evidence for a general capacity theory. Memory, 4, 577-590.
Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., Bunting, M. F., Hambrick, D. Z., Wilhelm, O., & Engle, R. W. (2005). Working memory span tasks: A methodological review and user’s guide. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 12, 769-786.
Conway, A. R. A., Kane, M. J., & R. W. Engle. (2003). Working memory capacity and its relation to general intelligence. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7, 547-552.
Cowan, N. (1988). Evolving conceptions of memory storage, selective attention, and their mutual constraints within the human information processing system. Psychological Bulletin, 104, 163-191.
Cowan, N. (1999). An embedded-process model of working memory. In A. Miyake & P. Shah (Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cowan, N. (2001). The magical number 4 in short-term memory: A reconsideration of mental storage capacity. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 24, 87-185.
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). Individual difference in working memory and reading. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 19, 450-466.
Daneman, M., & Carpenter, P. A. (1983). Individual difference in integrating information between and within sentences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 9, 561-583.
de Groot, A. D. (1978). Thought and Choice and Chess (2nd ed.). The Hague, Netherlands: Mouton. (Original work published 1946)
DeLosh, E. L., Busemeyer, J. R., & McDaniel, M. A. (1997). Extrapolation: The sine qua non for abstraction in function learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 23, 968-986.
Dougherty, M. R. P., & Hunter, J. E. (2003). Hypothesis generation, probability judgment, and individual differences in working memory capacity. Acta Psychologica, 113, 263-282.
Engle, R.W. (2001). What Is Working Memory Capacity? In H. L. Rodiger Ⅲ, J. S. Nairne, I. Neath, & A. M. Surprenant (Eds.), The nature of remembering: Essays in honor of Robert G. Crowder. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Engle, R.W. (2002). Working Memory Capacity as Executive Attention. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11, 19–23.
Engle, R. W., Cantor, J., & Carullo, J. J. (1992). Individual differences in working memory and comprehension: a test of four hypotheses. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 972-992.
Engle, R.W., Kane, M. J., & Tuholski, S.W. (1999). Individual differences in working memory capacity and what they tell us about controlled attention, general fluid intelligences, and functions of the prefrontal cortex. In A. Miyake & P. Shah (Eds.), Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Engle, R.W., Tuholski, S.W., Laughlin, J. E., & Conway, A. R. A. (1999). Working memory, short-term memory, and general fluid intelligence: A latent variable approach. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 128, 309-331.
Ericsson, K. A., & Lehmann, A. C. (1996). Expert and exceptional performance: Evidence of maximal adaptation to task constraints. Annual Review of Psychology, 47, 273-305.
Henson, R. K. (2001). Understanding internal consistency reliability estimates: A conceptual primer on coefficient alpha. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 34, 177-189.
Kane, M. J., & Engle, R. W. (2003). Working-memory capacity and the control of attention: The contributions of goal neglect, response competition, and task set to Stroop interference. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 132, 47-70.
Lewandowsky, S., Kalish, M., & Ngang, S. K. (2002). Simplified Learning in complex situations: Knowledge partitioning in function learning. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 131, 163-193.
Lewandowsky, S., Roberts, L., & Yang, L.-X. (2006). Knowledge partitioning in categorization: Boundary conditions. Memory & Cognition, 34, 1163-1178.
Lewandowsky, S., & Kirsner, K. (2000). Expert knowledge is not always integrated: A case of cognitive partition. Memory & Cognition, 28, 295-305.
Lewandowsky, S., Robert, L., & Yang, L-X. (in press). Knowledge partitioning in categorization: Boundary conditions. Memory & Cognition.
Neath I., & Surprenant A. M. (2003). Human memory(2nd ed.). CA: Wadsworth / Thomson Learning.
Oberauer, K., Süß, H.-M., Schulze, R., Wilhelm, O., & Wittmann, W. W. (2000). Working memory capacity - facets of a cognitive ability construct. Personality and individual Differences, 29, 1017-1045.
Oberauer, K., & Süb, H.-H. (2000). Working memory and interference: A comment on Jenkins, Myerson, Hale, and Fry (1999). Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 7, 727-733.
Pascual-Leone, J. (1970). A mathematical model for the transition rule in Piaget’s developmental stages. Acta Psychologica, 63, 301-345.
Schneider, W., & Detweiler, M. (1987). A connectionist/control architecture for working memory. In G. H. Bower (Ed.), The psychology of learning and motivation (Vol. 21, 53-119). New York: Academic Press.
Shiffrin, R. M. (1993). Short-term memory: A brief commentary. Memory & Cognition, 21, 193-197.
Turner, M. L., & Engle, R. W. (1989). Is working memory capacity task dependent? Journal of Memory and Language, 28, 127-154.
Unsworth, N., & R. W. Engle. (2005). Individual differences in working memory capacity and learning: Evidence from the serial reaction time task. Memory & Cognition, 33, 213-220.
Yang, L.-X., & Lewandowsky, S. (2003). Context-gated knowledge partitioning in categorization. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 29, 838-849.
Yang, L.-X., & Lewandowsky, S. (2004). Knowledge partitioning in categorization: Constraints on exemplar models. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 30, 1045–1064.