臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

山黃麻（Trema orientalis）為落葉喬木，屬於榆科及山黃麻屬，為食用及藥用植物。近年本省東部曾有疑似山羊攝食山黃麻等植物之中毒病例，此和澳洲地區許多草食動物因誤食榆科植物Trema aspera的中毒報告在病灶上有些異同之處。為了解本省山黃麻於山羊的中毒表現，我們以人工餵養山羊不同劑量的本省山黃麻樹葉，以臨床觀察、血液學、血清生化學及病理學等項目進行急性中毒與低劑量長期攻毒的研究。實驗結果顯示，山羊攝食10g/kgBW/day以上劑量的山黃麻樹葉後臨床上會出現精神抑鬱、活動力降低等，並於出現症狀後一至二天內死亡，而攻毒劑量在4g/kgBW/day以下時並不引起明顯的臨床症狀。於血清生化學表現，攻毒組之山羊其Gamma glutamytransferase（GGT）值的提昇與臨床表現及肝臟病變有相關性。血液學檢查方面，於急性攻毒組山羊（攻毒劑量達4g/kgBW/day以上）之白血球、紅血球、血紅素與血容比值皆出現不等程度的提昇。在肉眼病變上，攻毒組羊隻之肝臟較為腫脹，同時色澤偏黃，偶見數個出血斑或大區域的出血灶。組織病理學主要是肝臟的病變，可見高劑量攻毒組（10g/kgBW/day）之自然死亡山羊有不同程度之中央靜脈區為主的肝小葉大區域壞死，其特徵包括急性肝細胞溶解、壞死、肝細胞核濃縮、破裂、和壞死區出現四散的均質粉紅色細胞碎片，及殘存的細胞有脂肪變性等。中（4g/kgBW/day）、低劑量（1g/kgBW/day）之攻毒組山羊並無自然死亡，只有輕微的肝小葉中心區細胞壞死病變。在低劑量長期攻毒組（50g/goat/day）山羊之肝臟病變則為肝細胞腫脹及零星的肝細胞變性壞死。肝臟組織以PAS染色顯示中毒山羊的肝醣儲存量嚴重減少。在電子顯微鏡觀察下，攻毒之撒能羊於肝細胞傷害為脂肪滴（lipid droplets）聚集、類髓鞘體之膜狀構造（myelinoid bodies）、溶素體（lysosome）與殘餘體（residual bodies）及杯狀粒線體（cup-shaped mitochondria）及毛狀粒線體（mitochondria flocculation）的出現為主，而以相同劑量攻毒之臺灣山羊則無明顯異樣出現。由以上結果得知本省山黃麻會引起山羊的中毒，主要致害器官為肝臟，在短時間內攝食10g/kgBW/day以上的山黃麻葉可引起肝小葉中心區壞死的急性中毒病變，但在長期低劑量攻毒下並無明顯異樣，顯示山黃麻中毒在山羊可能不具累積性。由肝臟電子顯微鏡觀察，我們推測山黃麻中毒最後造成粒線體傷害，致產生能量代謝障礙之不可逆反應導致肝細胞死亡。另外，本土臺灣山羊雖在急性高劑量攻毒下亦無顯著之肝臟病變產生，此品系之山羊可能對於山黃麻中毒具有高耐受性。

Trema orientalis is a deciduous tree belonging to the family of Ulmaceae. The plant is edible and medicinal however, suspected cases of Trema orientalis intoxication in goats have been reported in eastern Taiwan recently. The lesions were somewhat similar to those caused by Trema aspera, the other plant of Ulmaceae, well known for its hepatotoxicity in herbivores in Australia. In order to clarify the possible toxicity of Trema orientalis in goats, a series of examination including clinical signs, hematology, blood chemistries, and pathology were performed in both short and long-term feeding studies. There were severe depression, anorexia, and weight loss in the goat fed leaves of Trema orientalis of a dose of 10g/kgBW/day or higher. The animals were dead one or two days after present with clinical signs. There were no significant clinical signs in the goat fed with 4g/kgBW/day or lower level of leaf. The increased serum level of gamma glutamytransferase (GGT) were correlated with the appearance of clinical signs and histopathological changes. Changes in hematological profiles did not correspond very well with injury of Trema orientalis. Grossly, swelling and yellow discoloration of the liver were the most significant lesions in the goat dying spontaneously after feeding Trema orientalis. Occasionally, petechia and ecchymosis presented in the liver of some of the goat. Histopthologically, there were multifocal lobular necroses in the liver featured with acute hepatocellular lysis, pyknosis and karyohexis in necrotic cells, presence of homogenous eosinophilic debris, and fatty change in the remaining viable cells. The extensiveness of hepatic lesions were in parallel with the amount of leaves consumped. In higher dose, the lesions were more extensive and only hepatocytes in the periportal area were spared. In the lower dose, the lesions more localized in the centrilobular area. Only individual cell necrosis and degeneration were found in the long-term study (50g/goat/day). Ultrastructurally, there were varied changes in the hepatocytes, which included lipid droplets, formation of myelinoid body, lysosomes and residual bodies, cup-shaped mitochondria, and flocculent densities in mitochondria. The study demonstrated that T. orientalis is indeed poisonous to goats with liver as the major target organ. The animal may suffer from acute liver damage and die soon after feeding with large amounts of leaves (10g/kgBW/day). However, the toxic effect of T. orientalis seems not accumulative since no significant hepatocellular injury was revealed functionally and morphologically following consumption of a low level of leaves at 50g/goat/day for a long period of time. The study suggests the hepatocellular injury caused by T. orientalis may be secondary to damage of mitochondria that may subsequently cause irreversible disturbance of energy metabolism and lead to hepatocellular necrosis. An incidental finding in this study was that native Taiwanese goat appeared to be insusceptible to T. orientalis because no functional or morphological hepatic injury was revealed even at a dose of 20g leaves/kgBW/day.

中文摘要 ---------------------------------------------I
英文摘要 ---------------------------------------------III
目錄 -------------------------------------------------V
表次 -------------------------------------------------VII
圖次 -------------------------------------------------VIII
第一章 緒言 -----------------------------------------1
第二章 文獻探討 -------------------------------------3
第一節 常見有毒植物之有毒成分種類及其作用機制介紹3
一、生物鹼（Alkaloids）-----------------------3
二、配醣體（Glycosides）---------------------7
三、倍半帖（Sesquiterpene）-------------------10
四、三帖類（Triterpenoid）--------------------10
五、微囊藻毒（Microcystins）------------------12
六、其它類 -----------------------------------14
第二節 山黃麻的介紹 -----------------------------15
一、山黃麻（Trema orientalis）的分類學、形態 ---------15
二、山黃麻的地理分佈與用途 -------------------16
三、澳洲山黃麻屬植物（Trema aspra）的致害及已知成分的
研究 -------------------------------------------------17
四、其它山黃麻屬（Trema）及榆科（Ulmaceae）相關植物
的用途與已知成分等研究 -------------------------------18
第三節 臺灣植物中毒病例於經濟動物的研究現況 -----19
第三章 實驗設計與材料方法 ---------------------------22
第一節 實驗設計 ---------------------------------22
第二節 材料 -------------------------------------23
一、實驗動物 ---------------------------------23
二、植物採集與鑑定 ---------------------------23
三、儀器設備與一般器材 -----------------------23
四、電子顯微鏡觀察所需藥品 -------------------24
第三節 方法 -------------------------------------25
一、動物觀察與記錄 ---------------------------25
二、血液化學檢查 -----------------------------26
三、血液學檢查 -------------------------------26
四、自然死亡與安樂死羊隻的處理 ---------------27
第四章 結果 -----------------------------------------29
第一節 採食量及臨床表現 -------------------------29
第二節 增重效率 ---------------------------------30
第三節 體溫變化 ---------------------------------31
第四節 血液化學檢查 -----------------------------31
第五節 血液學檢查 -------------------------------34
第六節 病理學檢查 -------------------------------35
第七節 組織病理學檢查 ---------------------------36
第八節 穿透式電子顯微鏡觀察 ---------------------38
第九節 瘤胃酸鹼度檢測 ---------------------------40
第十節 尿液檢測 ---------------------------------40
第五章 討論 -----------------------------------------42
第六章 結論 -----------------------------------------57
第七章 參考文獻 -------------------------------------88
附錄：嘗試萃取山黃麻毒素 -----------------------------89

中國科學院植物研究所主編。中國高等植物科屬檢索表。臺灣，臺北，南天書局，70，1991。
甘偉松。藥用植物學。臺灣，臺北，國立中國醫藥研究所，174，1977。
吳永惠、林孫權、劉正義、吳福明。本省牛隻肝原性光敏症之研究：(三)荷蘭種小公牛之馬櫻丹(Lantana camara)中毒試驗。中華民國獸醫學會雜誌。6：39-44，1980。
周世朗。雞的代用飼料原料。飼料營養。8：86-90，1992。
柳榗等。台灣主要林型生態之調查。林試所報告。72，65，1961。
洪春彬、鍾茂賢、楊昌輝、何昭堅、何聰明。豬隻梔子中毒。I. 梔子引發動物器官黑變之研究。中華民國獸醫學會雜誌。2：26-29，1976。
高木村等編。臺灣藥用植物手冊。臺灣，臺北，南天書局，117，1981。
陳志輝。雲林縣植物資源。臺灣，南投，臺灣省特有生物研究保育中心，33，85，103，1997。
陳嶸。中國樹木分類學。臺灣，臺北，文京圖書有限公司，224，1973。
彭仁傑。南投縣植物資源。臺灣，南投，臺灣省特有生物研究保育中心，14-15，85，146-147，1994。
彭仁傑。臺中縣市植物資源。臺灣，南投，臺灣省特有生物研究保育中心，5-7，52，112，150，1996。
劉宣誠、林國銓、曲俊麒。速生樹種生長及木材性質之研究 (I) ─山黃麻。中華林學季刊。12(3)：31-57，1979。
劉國柱、周正仁、歐潤芝合著。臺灣野生可食植物(一)。臺灣，臺北，國立中國醫藥研究所，37，1978。
劉堂瑞、廖日京。樹木學(上冊)。臺灣，臺北，臺灣商務印書館股份有限公司，220-221，1980。
劉堂瑞著，陳建鑄繪。臺灣木本植物圖誌卷上。臺灣，臺北，國立臺灣大學農學院印行，632-633，1960。
鄭元春、張之俊。台灣的野生食用植物。臺灣，臺北，自然科學文化事業公司出版部，120，135，1970。
賴明洲。台灣原生景觀樹木植栽手冊。臺灣，臺北，交通部觀光局，39-40，1987。
賴明洲編著。植物解說手冊(二)：景觀樹木。臺灣，南投，臺灣省立鳳凰谷鳥園，154-155，1995。
鍾茂賢、洪春彬、葉錦賢、何昭堅。豬隻梔子中毒。II. 臨床及臨床病理所見。中華民國獸醫學會雜誌。2：30-34，1976。
蘇杰夫、鄭建盛、劉敏主、彭衍初、林正欽、劉正義。臺灣山羊、綿羊在正常與病況下分離之Mycoplasmatales菌株。中華民國獸醫學會雜誌。9：187-196，1983。
Albretsen JC, Khan SA, and Richardson JA. Cycad palm toxicosis in dogs: 60 cases (1987-1997). J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 213: 99-101, 1998.
Allen JG, Seawright AA, and Hrdlicka J. The toxicity of Myoporum tetrandrum (Boobialla) and myoporaceous furanoid essential oils for ruminants. Aust. Vet. J. 54: 287-292, 1978.
Alroy J, Ucci AA, Goyal VG, and Woods W. Lectin histochemistry of glycolipids storage disease on frozen and paraffin-embedded tissue sections. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 34: 501-505, 1986.
Araya O and Fuentealba IC. Chronic hepato-toxicity of Senecio erraticus in calves from two 50-day feeding periods in consecutive years. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 32: 555-557, 1990.
Atkinson JB, Hill KE, Burk RF. Centrilobular endothelial cell injury by diquat in the selenium-deficient rat liver. Lab. Invest. 81: 193-200, 2001.
Bacon JA, Cramer CT, Petrella DK, Sun EL, and Ulrich RG. Potentiation of hypoxic injury in cultured rabbit hepatocytes by the quinoxalinone anxiolytic, panadiplon. Toxicology 108: 9-16, 1996.
Barre JT, Bowden BF, Coll JC, DeJesus J, De La Fuente VE, Janairo GC, and Ragasa CY. A bioactive triterpene from Lantana camara. Phytochemistry 45: 321-324, 1997.
Barri MES and Adam SEI. The toxicity of Crotalaria saltiana to calves. J. Comp. Pathol. 91: 621-627, 1981.
Begum S, Wahab A, Siddiqui BS, and Qamar F. Nematicidal constituents of the aerial parts of Lantana camara. J. Natural Products 63: 765-767, 2000.
Botha CJ, Naude TW, Swan GE, Ashton MM, and van der Wateren JF. Suspected cycad (Cycas revoluta) intoxication in dogs. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 62: 189-190, 1991.
Bowers WJ, Daum P, Blaha M, Stevens C, Castro I, and Leav I. Calcium antagonists and heat-induced hepatic injury. Virchows Arch. B. 53: 235-242, 1987.
Braun U, Linggi T, and Pospischil A. Ultrasonographic findings in three cows with chronic ragwort (Senecio alpinus) poisoning. Vet. Rec. 144: 122-126, 1999.
Brogden KA, Lehmkuhl HD, and Cutlip RC. Pasteurella haemolytica complicated respiratory infections in sheep and goats. Vet.. Res. 29: 233-254, 1998.
Chan MY, Zhao XL, and Ogle CW. A comparative study on the hepatic toxicity and metabolism of Crotalaria assamica and Eupatorium species. Am. J. Chinese Med. 17: 165-170, 1989.
Cheeke PR and Pierson-Goeger ML. Toxicity of Senecio jacobaea and pyrrolizidine alkaloids in various laboratory animals and avian species. Toxicol. Letters 18: 343-349, 1983.
Chopra RN, Nayar SL, and Chopra IC. In: Glossary of Indian medicinal plants, New Pelhi, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 246, 1956.
Chu PS and Segall HJ. Species difference in the urinary excretion of isatinecic acid from the pyrrolizidine alkaloid retrorsine. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C. Comp. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 100: 683-686, 1991.
Collazo L, and Riet-Correa F. Experimental intoxicaton of sheep and cattle with Wedelia glauca. Vet.. Hum. Toxicol. 38: 200-203, 1996.
Costa M, Shute B, and Mergner WJ. Measurement of ATP synthesis and flocculent matrix densities in mitochondria as a function of ‘in vitro’ ischemia in the heart and liver of rats. Pathobiology 58: 129-137, 1990.
Craig AM, Latham CJ, Blythe LL, Schmotzer WB, and O'Connor OA. Metabolism of toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids from tansy ragwort (Senecio jacobaea) in ovine ruminal fluid under anaerobic conditions. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58: 2730-2736, 1992.
Craig AM, Pearson EG, Meyer C,and Schmitz JA. Serum liver enzyme and histopathologic changes in calves with chronic and chronic-delayed Senecio jacobaea toxicosis. Am. J. Vet. Res. 52: 1969-78, 1991.
Curran JM, Sutherland RJ, and Peet RL. A screening test for subclinical liver disese in horses affected by pyrrolizidine alkaloid toxicosis. Aust. Vet. J. 74: 236-240, 1996.
Danieli B, Bombardelli E, Bonati A. Structure of the diterpenoid carboxyatarctyloside. Phytochemistry 11: 3501-3504, 1972.
de Lanux-Van Gorder V. Tansy ragwort poisoning in a horse in southern Ontario. Can. Vet. J. 41: 409-410, 2000.
Dickinson JO and Braun RC. Effect of 2(3)-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole (BHA) and 2-chloroethanol against pyrrole production and chronic toxicity of monocrotaline in chickens. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 29: 11-15, 1987.
Ding W, Shen H, and Zhu H. Hepatotoxicity and formation of reactive oxygen species induced by microcystis aeruginosa toxin. Chinese J. Preventive Med. 32: 278-280, 1998a.
Ding WX, Shen HM, Shen Y, Zhu HG, and Ong CN. Microcystic cyanobacteria causes mitochondrial membrane potential alteration and reactive oxygen species formation in primary cultured rat hepatocytes. Environ. Health Perspective. 106: 409-413, 1998b.
Ding WX, Shen HM, Zhu HG, Lee BL, and Ong CN. Genotoxicity of microcystic cyanobacteria extract of a water source in China. Mutation Res. 442: 69-77, 1999.
Dorling PR, Huxtable CR, and Vogel P. Lysosomal storage in Swainsona spp. toxicosis: and induced mannosidosis. Neuropathol. Appl. Neurobiol. 4: 285-291, 1978.
Driemeier D, Colodel EM, Gimeno EJ, and Barros SS. Lysosomal storage disease caused by Side carpinifolia poisoning in goats. Vet. Pathol. 37: 153-159, 2000.
Eizirik DL and Kisby GE. Cycad toxin-induced damage of rodent and human pancreatic beta-cells. Biochem. Pharmacol. 50: 355-365, 1995.
Fischer WJ and Dietrich DR. Pathological and biochemical characterization of microcystin-induced hepatopancreas and kidney damage in carp (Cyprinus carpio). Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 164: 73-81, 2000.
Fournet A, Barrios AA, Muñoz V, Hocquemiller R, Roblot F, and Cave A. Antileishmanial activity of a tetralone isolated from Ampelocera edentula, a bolivian plant used as a treatment for cutaneous leishmaniasis. Planta Med. 60: 8-12, 1994.
Frazier K, Colvin B, Styer E, Hullinger G, and Garcia R. Microcystin toxicosis in cattle due to overgrowth of blue-green algae. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 40: 23-24, 1998.
Frederiks WM, Marx F, and Myagkaya GL. A histochemical study of changes in mitochondrial enzyme activities of rat liver after ischemia in vitro. Virchows Arch. B. 51: 321-329, 1986.
French SW, Benson NC, and Sun PS. Centrilobular liver necrosis induced by hypoxia in chronic ethanol-fed rats. Hepatology 4: 912-917, 1984.
Friesen DL and Singh A. Liver ultrastruture in pigs fed various oils. Res. Vet. Sci. 30: 368-373, 1981.
Ganai GN and Jha GJ. Immunosuppression due to chronic Lantana camara, L. toxicity in sheep. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 29: 762-766, 1991.
Garg SK, Shah MA, Garg KM, Farooqui MM, and Sabir M. Antilymphocytic and immunosuppressive effects of Lantana camara leaves in rats. Indian J. Exp. Biol. 35: 1315-1318, 1997.
Ghosh S, Khan SA, Wickstrom M, and Beasley V. Effects of microcystin-LR on actin and the actin-associated proteins α-actinin and talin in hepatocytes. Nat. Toxins 3: 405-414, 1995.
Goeger DE, Cheeke PR, Ramsdell HS, Nicholson SS, and Buhler DR. Comparison of the toxicities of Senecio jacobaea, Senecio vulgaris and Senecio glabellus in rats. Toxicol. Letters 15: 19-23, 1983.
Hall WTK. Cycad (zamia) poisoning in Australia. Aust. Vet. J. 64: 149-151, 1987.
Hatch RC, Jain AV, Weiss R, and Clark JD. Toxicologic study of carboxyatractyloside (active principle in cocklebur- Xanthium strumarium) in rats treated with enzyme inducers and inhibitors and glutathione precursor and depletor. Am. J. Vet. Res. 43: 111-116, 1982.
Hill BD, Wills LD, and Dowling RM. Suspected poisoning of horses by Trema aspera (poison peach). Aust. Vet. J. 62: 107-108, 1985.
Hoida G, Greenberg Z, Furth M, Malsha Y, Craig PS, Schantz PM, Sneir R, and El-On J. An epidemiological survey of Echinococcus granulosus and other helminthes in animal populations in northern Israel. J. Helminthol. 72: 127-131, 1998.
Hooser SB, Beasley VR, Lovell RA, Carmichael WW, and Haschek WM. Toxicity of microcystin LR, a cyclic heptapeptide hepatotoxin from Microcystis aeruginosa, to rats and mice. Vet. Pathol. 26: 246-252, 1989.
Hooser SB, Beasley VR, Basgall EJ, Carmichael WW, Haschek WM. Microcystin-LR-induced ultrastructural changes in rats. Vet. Pathol. 27: 9-15, 1990.
Huang JC, Wen SH and Li PH. Serum thyroid hormone levels of heifers grazing leucaena leucocephala in southern Taiwan. Chinese J. Physiol. 31: 23-29, 1988.
Huang T-C. In: Pollen flora of Taiwan. ROC, Taiwan, Taipei, National Taiwan University, Botany Department Press, 235, plate154, 1972.
Huffman MA, Page JE, Sukhdeo MVK, Gotoh S, Kalunde MS, Chandrasiri T, and Towers GHN. Leaf-swallowing by chimpanzees: a behavioral adaptation for the control of strongyle nematode infections. Int. J. Primatol. 17: 475-503, 1996.
Ide A and Tutt CL. Acute Lantana camara poisoning in a Boer goat kid. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 69: 30-32, 1998.
Jackson ARB, Mcinnes A, Falconer IR, and Runnegar MTC. Clinical and pathological changes in sheep experimentally poisoned by the blue-green alga Microcystis aeruginosa. Vet. Pathol. 21: 102-113, 1984.
Jacobs JM, Rutkowski JV, Roebuck BD, and Smith RP. Rat hepatic mitochondria are more sensitive to allyl alcohol than are those of mice. Toxicol. Letters 38: 257-264, 1987.
James LF, van Kempen KR, and Harley WJ. Comparative pathology of Astragalus (locoweed) and Swainsona poisoning in sheep. Vet. Pathol. 7: 116-125, 1970
Jennings PW, Reeder SK, Hurley JC, Caughlan CN, and Smith GD. Isolation and structure determination of one of the toxic constituents from Tetradymia glabrata. J. Org. Chem. 39: 3392-3398, 1974.
Jerrett IV and Chinnock RJ. Outbreaks of photosensitisation and deaths in cattle due to Myoporum aff. Insulare R. Br. toxicity. Aust. Vet. J. 60: 183-186, 1983.
Johnson AE. Experimental photosensitization and toxicity in sheep produced by Tetradymia glabrata. Can. J. Comp. Med. 38: 406-410, 1974a.
Johnson AE. Predisposing influence of range plants on Tetradymia-related photosensitization in sheep: work of Drs. A. B. Clawson and W. T. Huffman. Am. J. Vet. Res. 35: 1583-1585, 1974b.
Johnson AE. Toxicologic aspects of photosensitization in livestock. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 69: 253-258, 1982.
Johnson JH. Jensen JM. Hepatotoxicity and secondary photosensitization in a red kangaroo (Megaleia rufus) due to ingestion of Lantana camara. J. Zoo Wildlife Med. 29: 203-207, 1998.
Jolly RD and Walkley SU. Lysosomal storage diseases of animals: an assay in comparative pathway. Vet. Pathol. 34: 527-548, 1997.
Judah JD, Mclean AEM, and Mclean EK. Biochemical mechanisms of liver injury. Am. J. Med. 49: 609-616, 1970.
Jun CD, Pae HO, Kim YC, Jeong SJ, Yoo JC, Lee EJ, Choi BM, Chae SW, Park RK, and Chung HT. Inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis by butanol fraction of the methanol extract of Ulmus Davidiana in murine macrophages. J. Ethnopharmacol. 62: 129-135, 1998.
Jungermann K and Katz N. Functional hepatocellular heterogeneity. Hepatology 2: 385-395, 1982.
Kelly WR. The liver and biliary system. In: Jubb KVF, Kennedy PC, and Plamer N, ed. Pathology of domestic animals. 4th ed. California, Academic Press, Inc., p.p.386-387, 1991.
Kim JP, Kim WG, Koshino H, Jung J, and Yoo ID. Sesquiterpene o-naphthoquinones from the root bark of Ulmus davidiana. Phytochemistry 43: 425-430, 1996.
Krishnaswamy K and Raghuramulu N. Bioactive phytochemicals with emphasis on dietary practices. Indian J. Med. Res. 108: 167-181, 1998.
Kudryavtseva MV, Stein GI, Shashkov BV, and Kudryavtsev BN. Functional activity of human hepatocytes under traumatic disease. Exp. Toxicol. Pathol. 50: 53-57, 1998.
Lafranconi WM and Huxtable RJ. Hepatic metabolism and pulmonary toxicity of monocrotaline using isolated perfused liver and lung. Biochem. Pharmacol. 33: 2479-2484, 1984.
Lee JS, Seawright AA, and Hrdlicka J. The nephrotoxicity for mice of deisopropylngaione, a minor furanoid component of toxic myoporaceous essential oils. J. Appl. Toxicol. 5: 14-22, 1985.
Lee MK and Kim YC. Five novel neuroprotective triterpene esters of Ulmus davidiana var. japonica. J. Nat. Prod. 64: 328-331, 2001.
Lee S-H. Family 21. Ulmaceae Mirb. In: Forest botany of China supplement. ROC, Taiwan, Taipei, Chinese Forestry Association, 114-122, 1973.
Lee TH, Chen YM, and Chou HN. First report of microcystins in Taiwan. Toxicon 36: 247-255, 1998.
Liu CI. Moldy sweet potato related respiratory distress in cattle. J. Chinese Soc. Vet. Sci. 8: 155-159, 1982.
Locke KB, McEwan DR, and Hamdorf IJ. Experimental poisoning of horse and cattle with Swainsona canescens var hormiana. Aust. Vet. J. 56: 379-383, 1980.
Maiden JH, F.L.S., F.C.S., and C. In: Useful native plants of Australia. London, Trubner and Co., Ludgate Hill, 143, 608, 1889.
Marquis VO. Proceeding: Preliminary report on the aqueous alcoholic extract and fraction of Trema orientalis on hypertensive rats. West Afr. J. Pharmacol. Drug Res. 2: 62, 1974.
MartinT, Stair EL, and Kawson L. Cocklebur poisoning in cattle. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 189: 562-563, 1986.
Mattocks AR and Bird I. Pyrrolic and N-oxide metabolites formed from pyrrolizidine alkaloids by hepatic microsomes in vitro: relevance to in vivo hepatotoxicity. Chemico-Biological Interactions 43: 209-222, 1983.
Mattocks AR. Relation of structural features to pyrrolic metabolites in livers of rats given pyrrolizidine alkaloids and derivatives. Chemico-Biological Interactions 35: 301-310, 1981.
McDowell DM. Ragwort poisoning in horse. Vet. Rec. 145: 148, 1999.
McKenzie RA. Bentonite as therapy for Lantana camara poisoning of cattle. Aust. Vet. J. 68: 146-148, 1991.
McLennan MW and Kelly WR. Cestrum parqui (green cestrum) poisoning in cattle. Aust. Vet. J. 61: 289-291, 1984.
McSweeney CS and Pass MA. The mechanism of ruminal stasis in lantana-poisoned sheep. Quarterly J. Exp. Physiol. 68: 301-313, 1983.
Mendez MC, dos Santos RC and Riet-Correa F. Intoxication by Xanthium cavanillesii in cattle and sheep in southern Brazil. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 40: 144-147, 1998.
Milne EM, Pogson DM, and Doxey DL. Secondary gastric impaction associated with ragwort poisoning in three ponies. Vet. Rec. 126: 502-504, 1990.
Molyneux RJ and James LF. Loco intoxication: indolizidine alkaloid of spotted locoweed (Astragalus lentiginosus). Science 216: 190-191,1982.
Murnane RD, Ahern-Rindell AJ, and Prieur DJ. Lectin histochemistry of an ovine lysosomal storage disease with deficience of β-galactosidase and α-neuraminidase. Am. J. Pathol. 135: 623-630, 1989.
Myagkaya GL, van Veen H, and James J. Quantitative analysis of mitochondrial flocculent densities in rat hepatocytes during normothermic and hypothermic ischemia in vitro. Virchows Arch. B. 49: 61-72, 1985.
N’Gouemo P, Pambou-Tchivounda H, Baldy-Moulinier M, Koudogbo B, and N’Guemby-Bina C. Some pharmacological effects of an ethanolic extract of Trema Guineensis on the central nervous system in rodents. Planta Med. 60: 305-307, 1994.
Nag A and Matai S. Chemical composition of some fodder trees in and around Calcutta. Indian Vet. J. 69: 411-414, 1992.
Nanji AA, Fogt F, and Griniuviene B. Alterations in glucose transporter proteins in alcoholic liver disease in the rat. Am. J. Pathol. 146: 329-334, 1995.
Nawito M, Ahmed YF, Zayed SMAD, and Hecker E. Dietary cancer risk from conditional cancerogens in produce of livestock fed on species of spurge (Euphorbiaceae). II. Pathophysiological investigations in lactating goats fed on the skin irritant herb Euphorbia peplus and in their milk-raised kids. J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 124: 179-185, 1998.
Nayak NC, Sathar SA, Mughal S, Duttagupta S, Mathur M, and Chopra P. The nature and significance of liver cell vacuolation following hepatocellular injury - an analysis based on observations on rats rendered tolerant to hepatotoxic damage. Virchows Arch. 428: 353-365, 1996.
Noble JW, Crossley J, Hill BD, Pierce RJ, McKenzie RA, Debritz M, and Morley AA. Pyrrolizidine alkaloidosis of cattle associated with Senecio lautus. Aust. Vet. J. 71: 196-200, 1994.
Nobre D, Dagli ML, and Haraguchi M. Crotalaria juncea intoxication in horses. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 36: 445-448, 1994.
Oelrichs PB. Isolation and purification of trematoxin from Trema aspera. Phytochemistry 7: 1691-1693, 1968.
Pan YT, Ghidoni J, and Elbein AD. The effects of castanospermine and swainsonine on the activity and synthesis of intestinal sucrase. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 303:134-144, 1993.
Peixoto PV, Brust LC, Duarte MD, Franca TN, Duarte VC, and Barros CS. Cestrum laevigatum poisoning in goats in southeastern Brazil. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 42: 13-14, 2000.
Peterson JE, Jago MV, Payne AL, and Stewart PL. The toxicity of phomopsin for sheep. Aust. Vet. J. 64: 293-298, 1987.Raposo JB, Mendez MC, de Andrade GB, and Riet-Correa F. Experimental intoxication by Myoporum laetum in cattle. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 40: 275-277, 1998a.
Ramsdell HS, Kedzierski B, and Buhler DR. Microsomal metabolism of pyrrolizidine alkaloids from Senecio jacobaea. Isolation and quantification of 6,7-dihydro-7-hydroxy-1-hydroxymethyl-5H-pyrrolizine and N-oxides by high performance liquid chromatography. Drug Metabolism Disposition 15: 32-36, 1987.
Raposo JB, Mendez MC, de Andrade GB, and Riet-Correa F. Experimental intoxication by Myoporum laetum in cattle. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 40: 275-277, 1998a.
Raposo JB, Mendez MC, Riet-Correa F, and de Andrade GB. Experimental intoxication by Myoporum laetum in sheep. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 40: 132-135, 1998b.
Reams RY, Janovitz EB, Robinson FR, Sullivan JM, Rivera CC, and Mas E. Cycad (Zamia puertoriquensis) toxicosis in a group of dairy heifers in Puerto Rico. J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 5: 488-494, 1993.
Richards PW. The tropical rain forest: an ecological study. N. W., London, Cambridge University Press, 377-403, 1966.
Samarajeewa U, Arseculeratne SN, and Tennekoon GE. Spontaneous and experimental aflatoxicosis in goats. Res. Vet. Sci. 19: 269-277, 1975.
Sarkar K, Narbaitz R, Pokrupa R, and Uhthoff HK. The ultrastructure of nephrocalcinosis induced in chicks by Cestrum diurnum leaves. Vet. Pathol. 18: 62-70, 1981.
Sharma OP, Dawra RK, and Pattabhi V. Molecular structure, polymorphism, and toxicity of lantadene A, the pentacyclic triterpenoid from the hepatotoxic plant Lantana camara. J. Biochem. Toxicol. 6: 57-63, 1991.
Sharma OP, Vaid J, Pattabhi V, and Bhutani KK. Biological action of lantadene C, a new hepatotoxicant from Lantana camara var. aculeata. J. Biochem. Toxicol. 7: 73-79, 1992.
Sharma S. Sharma OP. Singh B. Bhat TK. Biotransformation of lantadenes, the pentacyclic triterpenoid hepatotoxins of lantana plant, in guinea pig. Toxicon 38: 1191-1202, 2000.
Singh A, Sharma OP, Dawra RK, Kanwar SS, and Mahato SB. Biotransformation of lantadene A (22 beta-angeloyloxy-3-oxoolean-12-en-28-oic acid), the pentacyclic triterpenoid, by Alcaligenes faecalis. Biodegradation 10: 373-381, 1999.
Spencer PS, Ludolph AC, and Kisby GE. Neurologic diseases associated with use of plant components with toxic potential. Environ. Res. 62: 106-113, 1993.
Stegelmeier BL, James LF, Panter KE, and Molyneux RJ. Tissue and serum swainsonine concentrations in sheep ingesting Astragalus lentiginosus (locoweed). Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 37: 336-339, 1995b.
Stegelmeier BL, James LF, Panter KE, Gardner DR, Ralphs MJ, and Pfister JA. Tissue swainsonine clearance in sheep chronically poisoned with locoweed (Oxytropis sericea). J. Ani. Sci. 76: 1140-1144, 1998.
Stegelmeier BL, Molyneux RJ, Elbein AD, and James LF. The lesion of locoweed (Astragalus mollissimus), swainsonine, and castanospermine in rats. Vet. Pathol. 32: 289-298, 1995a.
Sternlieb I, Quintana N, Volenberg I, and Schilsky ML. An array of mitochondrial alterations in the hepatocytes of Long-Evans Cinnamon rats. Hepatology 22: 1782-1787, 1995.
Stuart BP, Cole RJ, and Gosser HS. Cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium, L. var. strumarium) intoxication in swine: review and redefinition of the toxic principle. Vet. Pathol. 18: 368-383, 1981.
Swick RA, Cheeke PR, Patton NM, and Buhler DR. Absorption and excretion of pyrrolizidine (Senecio) alkaloids and their effects on mineral metabolism in rabbits. J. Ani. Sci. 55: 1417-1424, 1982.
Swick RA, Cheeke PR, Ramsdell HS, and Buhler DR. Effect of sheep rumen fermentation and methane inhibition on the toxicity of Senecio jacobaea. J. Ani. Sci. 56: 645-651, 1983a.
Swick RA, Miranda CL, Cheeke PR, and Buhler DR. Effect of Phenobarbital on pyrrolizidine (Senecio) alkaloids in sheep. J. Ani. Sci. 56: 887-894, 1983b.
Tapia MO, Cravero A, Cadenazzi GE, Koch O. Liver necrosis induced by Wedelia glauca in rats. A light and electron microscopy study. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 38:10-14, 1996.
Traverso SD and Driemeier D. Experimental Trema micrantha (Ulmaceae) poisoning in rabbits. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 42: 301-302, 2000.
Trovato A, Forestieri AM, Barbera R, and Galati EM. Effects of Trema guineense decoction on some metabolic activities in the rat. Pharmacol. Res. Communi. 20: 63-65, 1988.
Trueman KF and Powell MW. Suspected poisoning of camels by Trema tomentosa (poison peach). Aust. Vet. J. 68: 213-214, 1991.
Tustin RC. Notes on the toxicity and carcinogenicity of some South African cycad species with special reference to that of Encepharlartos lanatus. J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc. 54: 33-42, 1983.
van der Lugt JJ, Nel PW, and Kitching JP. Experimentally-induced Cestrum lavigatum (Schlechtd.) poisoning in sheep. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res. 59: 135-144, 1992.
van der Lugt JJ, Nel PW, and Kitching JP. The pathology of Cestrum laevigatum (Schlechtd.) poisoning in cattle. Onderstepoort J. Vet. Res. 58: 211-221, 1991.
Wachenheim DE, Blythe LL, and Craig AM. Characterization of rumen bacterial pyrrolizidine alkaloid biotransformation in ruminants of various species. Vet. Hum. Toxicol. 34: 513-517, 1992a.
Wachenheim DE, Blythe LL, and Craig AM. Effects of antibacterial agents on in vitro ovine ruminal biotransformation of the hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloid jacobine. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58: 2559-2564, 1992b.
Wang DH, Ishii K, Zhen LX, and Taketa K. Enhanced liver injury in acatalasemic mice following exposure to carbon tetrachloride. Arch. Toxicol. 70: 189-194, 1996.
Wang YJ, Mak SC, and Chi CS. Hemorrhagic shock and encephalopathy-like syndrome: report of a case with emphasis on the pathological findings. Acta. Paed. Sin. 34: 398-404, 1993.
White RD, Swick RA, and Cheeke PR. Effects of microsomal enzyme induction on the toxicity of pyrrolizidine (Senecio) alkaloids. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 12: 633-640, 1983.
Whitmore TC. Tropical rain forests of the Far East. London, Oxford University Press, 69-73, 232-233, 1975.
Witte ST, Osweiler GD, Stahr HM, and Mobley G. Cocklebur toxicosis in cattle associated with the consumption of mature Xanthium strumarium. J.Vet. Diag. Invest. 2: 263-267, 1990.
Wolf CR, Statham CN, McMenamin MG, Bend JR, Boyd MR, and Philpot RM. The relationship between the catalytic activities of rabbit pulmonary cytochrome P-450 isozymes and the lung-specific toxicity of the furan derivative, 4-ipomeanol. Mol. Pharmacol. 22: 738-744, 1982.
Yan CC, Cooper RA, and Huxtable RJ. The comparative metabolism of the four pyrrolizidine alkaloids, seneciphylline, retrorsine, monocrotaline, and trichodesmine in the isolated, perfused rat liver. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 133: 277-284, 1995.
Yang Y-P and Lu S-Y. 6.Ulmaceae榆科. In: Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, Flora of Taiwan. 2nd ed. ROC, Taiwan, Taipei, Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan, 124-135, 1996.
Yasuda N and Shimizu T. Cycad poisoning in cattle in Japan─studies on spontaneous and experimental cases. J. Toxicol. Sci. 23 suppl. 2: 126-128, 1998.