臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

優秀運動員不僅能表現出優異的運動能力，同時也有證據指出有較佳的認知功能。然而僅有少數研究探討是否運動員認知功能：(1)在不具運動特殊性的基礎認知作業下依然表現較佳；(2)會受到不同運動類型而有不同的調節效果。有鑒於此，本研究目的在於探討從事開放性運動者(網球選手)、封閉性運動者(游泳選手)以及坐式生活型態的非運動類，在基礎認知功能的表現差異。由於動作準備歷程在運動及認知表現中具重要的影響力，因此實驗一嘗試瞭解是否運動員能相較於非運動員，表現出較佳的動作準備歷程。實驗一採用結合go/no-go及變化性時距(variable foreperiod)的認知作業，以探討運動員與非運動員之間，在不同準備歷程下反應抑制的決策表現。結果主要發現，網球選手在目標物出現的時間點不確定性較高的情況下，反應時間較非運動員快，然而，游泳選手與其它組別間皆沒有顯著差異。有趣的是，受到時間不確定性影響較少的受試者，其在較高難度情境下的反應抑制的決策表現也會越好。因此，該實驗顯示了不同運動經驗對準備歷程有不同程度上的調節效果。在實驗二，本研究則採用stop-signal作業以更進一步地探討不同運動經驗對認知負荷較高的衝動控制之影響。實驗結果發現，網球選手的停止訊號反應時間(stop-signal reaction time)明顯地較游泳選手及非運動員短，然而游泳選手與非運動員之間則無明顯地差異，反映了網球選手在抑制錯誤反應的時間較少，表現出較好的衝動控制能力。另一方面，在選擇性反應時間上則沒有發現組別的差異。綜合上述兩個研究發現，本研究的結論是，運動訓練對認知功能的促進效益是可以從基礎認知作業所量測而得之，然而，此促進效益會因運動種類及認知作業的特性以及實驗設計的不同而有所差異。

Elite athletes show not only increased sporting capacity but also superior performance at the level of brain functions. However, few studies have investigated whether this athletic superiority (1) is still present on measures using fundamental tasks and (2) can be modulated differentially according to different types of sporting category. Consequently, the present study aimed to investigate the difference in brain function across athletes from open skill sport (tennis players), closed skill sport (swimmers) and sedentary controls using cognitive tasks without sport-related contexts. In the first experiment, we asked whether athletes, relative to non-athletes, show superior temporal preparation, which has great influence on both sporting and cognitive performance. A variable go/no-go foreperiod paradigm, which allows for assessment of decision-making in response inhibition underlying different levels of temporal preparation, was employed to address this issue. The primary finding was that tennis players responded faster than controls selectively for trials with higher temporal uncertainty and less temporal preparation can occur. However, this effect was not observed for swimmers. Interestingly, correlation analysis revealed that those who were less affected by temporal uncertainty showed better go/no-go decision-making when the task difficulty was higher. In the second study, we further tested the effect of sport category on inhibition with higher load by utilizing a stop-signal task in which go and stop responses can be evaluated. The results showed that tennis players had shorter stop-signal reaction times relative to swimmers and controls, whereas no difference was found between swimmers and controls, indicating better inhibitory control in tennis players. However, no significant difference was found across groups for the choice reaction time. Based on these findings, the present study concluded that benefits acquires via sport training on cognitive function may transfer to fundamental tasks depending on sport category and task characteristics.

Table of contents
Signature Page ……………………………………………………………………….. i
Thesis Approval Form……………………………………………………………….. ii
Acknowledgments………………………………………..………………………….. iii
Chinese Abstract…………………………………………………………………….. iv
English Abstract………………………………………….………………………….. v
Table of Contents. …………………………………………………………………... vi
List of Figures …………………………………………………….……………….. vii
List of Tables ……………………………………………………..……………….. viii
Chapter 1 1
General introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Can sport training effect on cognitive processing transfer to daily task? 2
1.3 The possible mechanism of the connection between sport skill and cognition 4
1.4 The purpose &; hypothesis of this thesis 6
Chapter 2 9
Experiment 1: Temporal preparation in athletes: A comparison of tennis players and swimmers with sedentary controls 9
2.1 Background 9
2.1.1 The effect of sport or exercise on temporal preparation 10
2.1.2 The effect of sport category on cognitive performance 14
2.1.3 Temporal preparation and variable foreperiod paradigm 16
2.1.4 Temporal preparation and its effect on cognitive performance 17
2.1.5 Purpose &; hypothesis 18
2.2 Methods 20
2.2.1 Participants 20
2.2.2 Measures 21
2.2.3 Procedure 25
2.2.4 Data analysis 26
2.3 Results 28
2.3.1 Participant demographics 28
2.3.2 Commission error 29
2.3.3 RT 30
2.3.4 Stepwise regression analysis 32
2.3.6 Normalized FP effect 33
2.3.7 The effect of temporal preparation on decision-making 34
2.4 Discussion 36
2.4.1 Conclusions 42
Chapter 3 44
Experiment 2: Open vs. closed skill sports and the modulations of inhibitory control 44
3.1 Introduction &; background 44
3.1.1 Differences in inhibitory control between athletes and non-athletes 45
3.1.2 Differences in inhibitory control across athletes from different categories 46
3.1.3 Stop-signal task and its utility in investigation of inhibitory control 47
3.1.4 Purpose &; hypothesis 48
3.2 Methods 49
3.2.1 Participants 49
3.2.2 Instruments 51
3.2.3 Apparatus 53
3.2.4 Procedure 58
3.2.4 Data analysis 59
3.3 Results 64
3.3.1 Subject demographics 64
3.3.2 Filtered responses 65
3.3.3 Go RTs (no stop-signal) 65
3.3.4 Go RTs (correct responses) 65
3.3.5 Go RTs (noncancelled responses) 66
3.3.6 Stop-signal reaction times 66
3.3.7 Noncancelled rates 67
3.3.8 Inhibition function 67
3.3.9 Hierarchical stepwise regression analysis 68
3.3 Discussion 69
Chapter 4 79
General Discussion 79
4.1 Results summary 79
4.2 The importance of athletic comparison 80
4.3 The role of aerobic fitness 81
4.4 The role of task design and task characteristics 82
4.5 Overall summary 84
Chapter 5 86
Conclusion, studies limitations &; future directions 86
5.1 Conclusion 86
5.2 Study limitations 86
5.2 Future directions 88
Electrophysiological approaches 88
Neuroimaging studies 91
Current trends in cognitive neuroscience and sport science in Taiwan 95
References 107

List of Figures
Figure 1. Illustration of the Go/No-Go variable FP paradigm …………....……..…25
Figure 2. Mean of the Go RTs and standard error for each analysis ..…….…….…33
Figure 3. The difference in magnitudes of foreperiod effect……………….……....34
Figure 4. The correlation between the magnitudes of foreperiod effect and decision-making among participants …………………………………….….……..36
Figure 5. Stop-signal task procedure …………………..……………………..……55
Figure 6. The procedures for the experimental sessions ..………………….….…..59
Figure 7. Stop-signal reaction time calculation ..……………………….……….…61
Figure 8. Mean Go RTs (in milliseconds) for each condition across tennis players, swimmers, and controls………………………….…………………………………66
Figure 9. Inhibitory control performance across tennis players, swimmers and controls…………………………………………….……………………………….68
Figure 10. Roadmap for future studies in cognitive neuroscience and sport science………………………………………………………......…………...…….100
List of Tables
Table 1. Demographics of participants in each group ……………………….……21
Table 2. Correlation analysis for BMI, training experiences, estimated physical activity, estimated VO2max, group factors, and RTFP500…………………………..28
Table 3. Error rate performances of participants in each group ……...……………30
Table 4. Results of hierarchical stepwise regression analysis (n=42)……………...32
Table 5. Group means (±SD) of the characteristics of the tennis players, swimmers, and sedentary controls ……………………………………………………………...50
Table 6. The SSD distributions and average SSD for each group………………….57
Table 7. Correlation analysis for BMI, training experiences, estimated physical activity, estimated VO2max, group factors, and stop-signal reaction time………...63
Table 8. Results of hierarchical stepwise regression analysis (n=60) …….…….…69

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