臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

循環利用營建材料產生的固體廢棄材料，在世界各地受到了相當大的關注。為了要提供固體廢棄物有新的利用方向，本研究探討使用混合飛灰(FA)與稻殼灰(RHA)材料利用地聚合技術，製作的鹼激發膠體(AAB)以及利用緻密配比法(DMDA)生產綠建築磚。鹼激發膠體試體方面，探討固液比(S/L)、養護溫度、稻殼灰含量以及氫氧化鈉溶液的濃度對於試體抗壓強度發展的影響。而在綠建築磚方面，探討成型壓力、漿量、以及未研磨稻殼灰(URHA)含量對於硬固磚工程表現上的影響。另外，使用X光繞射分析(XRD)以及傅立葉轉換紅外光譜分析，進行觀察鹼激發膠體以及建築磚的微觀性質。掃描式電子顯微鏡(SEM)搭配能量散佈光譜儀(EDS)用來分析樣品的表面的型態與組成。本研究發現了液固比、養護溫度、稻殼灰含量以及氫氧化鈉的濃度對於鹼激發膠體均有很明顯的影響。其中觀察到最高強度的鹼激發膠體採用固液比2.6、養護溫度60℃、氫氧化鈉溶液濃度10M以及稻殼灰含量35%所製作的樣品。此外，所有綠建築磚的試體均展現出良好的性能。使用最多到30%天然砂體積比的稻殼灰取代，並且以成型壓力35MPa、養護溫度約在35℃，並且相對溼度控制在50%情況下，所生產的綠建築磚性能十分良好，而且這一類型的磚符合目前在越南實心建築磚的標準。此外，微結構分析結果顯示了鹼激發膠體與磚的主要晶相皆為石英、莫萊石以及方英石，另外還存在了少量的沸石相。本研究的結果支持了使用飛灰與稻殼灰製造鹼激發膠體與綠建築磚的可行性。

Using solid waste materials in the production of construction materials has received considerable attention across the world. The present study investigates the possibility of using a blended fly ash (FA) and rice husk ash (RHA) in the production alkali-activated binder (AAB) using geopolymerization technology and of green construction bricks through the application of densified mixture design algorithm (DMDA) in order to provide a new use for solid waste materials. For the AAB samples, the effects of the solid-to-liquid (S/L) ratio, curing temperature, RHA content, and concentration of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution on the compressive strength development of the samples were investigated. For the green construction bricks, the effects of forming pressure, paste amount, and unground rice husk ash (URHA) content on engineering performance of the hardened bricks were studied. In addition, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) were used to examine the microstructural properties of both the AAB and brick samples. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) was used to characterize the samples surface morphologies and compositions. The present study found that the S/L ratio, the curing temperature, the RHA content, and the concentration of NaOH had significant effects on the properties of the AAB samples. The highest strength obtained from the AAB samples that were prepared at an S/L ratio of 2.6, a curing temperature of 60ºC, a NaOH concentration of 10 M, and an RHA content of 35%. Besides, all of the brick samples demonstrated excellent properties. Bricks with up to 30% of the natural sand volume replaced by URHA performed well at a forming pressure of 35 MPa, a curing temperature of around 35ºC, and a relative humidity of around 50%, which indicate that bricks of this type conform well to the current Vietnamese standards for solid construction bricks. Further, microstructural analyses showed that the major crystalline phases presented in the resultant AAB and brick samples were quartz, mullite, and cristobalite with the additional presence of minor zeolite phases. The results of the present study support the use of FA and RHA in the production of AAB and green construction bricks.

Abstract i
Acknowledgements iii
Table of contents iv
List of Tables viii
List of Figures x
Nomenclature xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 General introduction and motivation of the research 1
1.2 Aim and objectives of the research 4
1.3 Thesis organization 5
1.4 Research activities 6
Chapter 2 Literature review 8
2.1 Properties of fly ash and rice husk ash 8
2.1.1 Chemical composition of fly ash and rice husk ash 8
2.1.2 Structure of silica in fly ash and rice husk ash 11
2.2 Review on geopolymerization technology 13
2.3 Application of fly ash and rice husk ash 15
2.3.1 General used of fly ash and rice husk ash 15
2.3.2 Summary on the literature reviews about the use of fly ash and rice husk ash in producing alkali-activated binder and construction brick 18
Chapter 3 Materials properties and experimental programs 41
3.1 Materials properties 41
3.1.1 Cementitious materials 41
3.1.2 Fine aggregates 43
3.1.3 Alkali-activator solution and mixing water 44
3.2 Experimental programs and apparatus 45
3.2.1 Dimensions and visible effects 46
3.2.2 Compressive strength 47
3.2.3 Flexural strength 49
3.2.4 Water absorption 51
3.2.5 Bulk density 52
3.2.6 Void volume 52
3.2.7 X-ray diffraction 53
3.2.8 Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy 54
3.2.9 Scanning electron microscopy/ Energy dispersive spectroscopy 55
3.3 Mix design concept and samples preparation 56
3.3.1 The design concept for alkali-activated binder 56
3.3.2 Densified mixture design algorithm for green construction bricks 56
3.3.3 Samples preparation 63
Chapter 4 Engineering performance and microstructural characteristics of the alkali-activated fly ash and rice husk ash binder 68
4.1 Materials and test programs 68
4.2 Results and discussion 68
4.2.1 Effect of solids-to-liquid ratio 68
4.2.2 Effect of alkali-activator solution 70
4.2.3 Effect of curing temperature 72
4.2.4 Effect of rice husk ash content 74
4.2.5 XRD analysis 75
4.2.6 FTIR analysis 78
4.2.7 SEM observation 82
4.2.8 EDS analysis 88
Chapter 5 Engineering performance and microstructural evaluation of green construction bricks incorporating fly ash and rice husk ash 89
5.1 Materials and test programs 89
5.2 Results and discussion 89
5.2.1 Dimensions and visible effects 89
5.2.2 Compressive strength 90
5.2.3 Flexural strength 93
5.2.4 Water absorption 95
5.2.5 Bulk density 97
5.2.6 Void volume 99
5.2.7 XRD analysis 100
5.2.8 FTIR analysis 102
5.2.9 SEM observation 105
Chapter 6 Conclusions and Suggestions 107
6.1 Conclusions 107
6.2 Suggestions 110
References 111

[1] Chindaprasirt P, Jaturapitakkul C, Chalee W, Rattanasak U. Comparative study on the characteristics of fly ash and bottom ash geopolymers. Waste Management 2009; 29:539–543.
[2] Rattanasak U, Chindaprasirt P. Influence of NaOH solution on the synthesis of fly ash geopolymer. Minerals Engineering 2009; 22:1073–1078.
[3] Temuujin J, Williams RP, van Riessen A. Effect of mechanical activation of fly ash on the properties of geopolymer cured at ambient temperature. Journal of Materials Processing Technology 2009; 209:5276–5280.
[4] Bakharev T. Geopolymeric materials prepared using class F fly ash and elevated temperature curing. Cement and Concrete Research 2005; 32:1224–1232.
[5] Swanepoel JC, Strydom CA. Utilization of fly ash in a geopolymeric material. Applied Geochemistry 2002; 17:1143–1148.
[6] Panias D, Giannopoulou IP, Perraki T. Effect of synthesis parameters on the mechanical properties of fly ash-based geopolymers. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects 2007; 301:246–254.
[7] Izquierdo M, Querol X, Phillipart C, Antenucci D, Towler M. The role of open and closed curing conditions on the leaching properties of fly ash-slag-based geopolymers. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2010; 176:623–628.
[8] He J, Jie Y, Zhang J, Yu Y, Zhang G. Synthesis and characterization of red mud and rice husk ash-based geopolymer composites. Cement & Concrete Composites 2013; 37:108–118.
[9] Venkatanarayanan HK, Rangaraju PR. Effect of grinding of low-carbon rice husk ash on the microstructure and performance properties of blended cement concrete. Cement & Concrete Composites 2015; 55:348–363.
[10] de Sensale GR. Strength development of concrete with rice-husk ash. Cement & Concrete Composites 2006; 28:158–160.
[11] McLellan BC, Williams RP, Lay J, van Riessen A, Corder GD. Costs and carbon emissions for geopolymer pastes in comparison to ordinary portland cement. Journal of Cleaner Production 2011; 19:1080–1090.
[12] Zhang L. Production of bricks from waste materials – A review. Construction and Building Materials 2014; 47:643–655.
[13] Reddy BVV, Jagadish KS. Embodied energy of common and alternative building materials and technologies. Energy and Building 2003; 35:129–137.
[14] Ahmari S, Zhang L. Production of eco-friendly bricks from copper mine tailings through geopolymerization. Construction and Building Materials 2012; 29:323–331.
[15] Davidovits J. Geopolymers: Inorganic polymeric new materials. Journal of Thermal Analysis 1991; 37:1633–1656.
[16] Freidin C. Cementless pressed blocks from waste products of coal-firing power station. Construction and Building Materials 2007; 21:12–18.
[17] Arioz O, Kilinc K, Tuncan M, Tuncan A, Kavas T. Physical, mechanical and microstructure properties of F type fly ash based geopolymer bricks produced by pressure forming process. Advances in Science and Technology 2010; 21:69–74.
[18] Chen C, Li Q, Shen L, Zhai J. Feasibility of manufacturing geopolymer bricks using circulating fluidized bed combustion bottom ash. Environmental Technology 2012; 33:1313–1321.
[19] Ahmari S, Zhang L. Utilization of cement kiln dust (CKD) to enhance mine tailings-based geopolymer bricks. Construction and Building Materials 2013; 40:1002–1011.
[20] Kumar A, Kumar S. Development of paving blocks from synergistic use of red mud and fly ash using geopolymerization. Construction and Building Materials 2013; 38:865–871.
[21] Ahmaruzzaman M. A review on the utilization of fly ash. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 2010; 36:327–363.
[22] Basu M, Pande M, Bhadoria PBS, Mahapatra SC. Potential fly-ash utilization in agriculture: A global review. Progress in Natural Science 2009; 19:1173–1186.
[23] Theis TL, Wirth JL. Sorptive behavior of trace metals on fly ash in aqueous systems. Environmental Science & Technology 1977; 11:1096–1100.
[24] Kumar V, Mathur M, Preeti KS. Flyash management: vision for the new millennium. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Flyash Disposal and Utilisation. FAM & CBIP, New Delhi, 2–4 February 2000; 1:1–9.
[25] ASTM. Standard specification for coal fly ash and raw or calcined natural pozzolan for use in concrete, C618. Annual book of ASTM standards; 04(02).
[26] Page AL, Elseewi A, Straughan IR. Physical and chemical properties of fly ash from coal-fired power plants with reference to environmental impacts. In: Gunther F, Gunther J, editors. Residue Reviews: Springer, New York; 1979; 83–120.
[27] Plank CO, Martens DC. Boron availability as influenced by application of fly ash to soil. Soil Science Society of America Journal 1974; 38:974–977.
[28] Chen Y, Zhang Y, Chen T, Zhao Y, Bao S. Preparation of eco-friendly construction bricks from hematite tailings. Construction and Building Materials 2011; 25:2107–2111.
[29] Antony JC, Saravanan G, Ramakrishnan AK, Kandasamy S. Strength and durability studies on fly ash based geopolymer bricks. Asian Journal of Civil Engineering 2013; 14:797–808.
[30] Palomo A, Grutzeck MW, Blanco MT. Alkali-activated fly ashes: A cement for the future. Cement and Concrete Research 1999; 29:1323–1329.
[31] Nizar IK, Al Bakri AMM, Rafiza AR, Kamarudin H, Alida A, Zarina Y. Study on physical and chemical properties of fly ash from different area in Malaysia. Key Engineering Materials 2014; 594–595:985–989.
[32] Chatveera B, Lertwattanaruk P. Durability of conventional concretes containing black rice husk ash. Journal of Environmental Management 2011; 92:59–66.
[33] Ling IH, Teo DCL. Properties of EPS RHA lightweight concrete bricks under different curing conditions. Construction and Building Materials 2011; 25:3648–3655.
[34] Bui LAT, Chen CT, Hwang CL, Fransiscus M. Application of residual rice husk ash from Vietnam as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete. Advanced Materials Research 2012; 347–353:2829–2833.
[35] Hegazy E, Fouad HA, Hassanain M. Brick manufacturing from water treatment sludge and rice husk ash. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 2012; 6:453–461.
[36] de Sensale GR. Effect of rice-husk ash on durability of cementitious materials. Cement and Concrete Composites 2010; 32:718–725.
[37] Kumar J, Singh V, Pareek RK. A study on the effect of fly ash and rice husk ash on strength parameters of pavement quality concrete. International Journal on Emerging Technologies 2015; 6:28–34.
[38] Muthadhi A, Anitha R, Kothandaraman S. Rice husk ash – Properties and its uses: A Review. In: Calcutta, INDE: Institution of Engineers; 2007.
[39] Kumar A, Mohanta K, Kumar D, Parkash O. Properties and industrial applications of rice husk: A review. International Journal of Emerging Techonology and Advanced Engineering 2012; 2:86–90.
[40] Ismail MS, Waliuddin AM. Effect of rice husk ash on high strength concrete. Construction and Building Materials 1996; 10:521–526.
[41] Sivapullaiah PV, Prashanth JP, Sridharan A, Narayana BV. Reactive silica and strength of fly ashes. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering 1998; 16:239–250.
[42] Nair DG, Fraaij A, Klaassen AAK, Kentgens APM. A structural investigation relating to the pozzolanic activity of rice husk ashes. Cement and Concrete Research 2008; 38:861–869.
[43] Payá J, Monzó J, Borrachero MV, Peris-Mora E, Ordóñez LM. Studies on crystalline rice husk ashes and the activation of their pozzolanic properties. Waste Management Series 2000; 1:493–503.
[44] Hwang CL, Chandra S. The use of rice husk ash in concrete. In: Satish C, editor. Waste Materials Used in Concrete Manufacturing. Westwood, NJ: William Andrew Publishing; 1996; 184–234.
[45] Nair DG, Jagadish KS, Fraaij A. Reactive pozzolanas from rice husk ash: An alternative to cement for rural housing. Cement and Concrete Research 2006; 36:1062–1071.
[46] Zhang MH, Malhotra VM. High-performance concrete incorporating rice husk ash as a supplementary cementing material. ACI Materials Journal 1996; 93:629–636.
[47] Rodrı́guez-Camacho RE, Uribe-Afif R. Importance of using the natural pozzolans on concrete durability. Cement and Concrete Research 2002; 32:1851–1858.
[48] Kong DLY, Sanjayan JG. Effect of elevated temperatures on geopolymer paste, mortar and concrete. Cement and Concrete Research 2010; 40:334–339.
[49] Khale D, Chaudhary R. Mechanism of geopolymerization and factors influencing its development: A review. Journal of Materials Science 2007; 42:729–746.
[50] Dimas D, Giannopoulou I, Panias D. Polymerization in sodium silicate solutions: a fundamental process in geopolymerization technology. Journal of Materials Science 2009; 44:3719–3730.
[51] Duxson P, Jiménez AF, Provis JL, Lukey GC, Palomo A, van Deventer JSJ. Geopolymer technology: the current state of the art. Journal of Materials Science 2007; 42:2917–2933.
[52] Ferreira C, Ribeiro A, Ottosen L. Possible applications for municipal solid waste fly ash. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2003; 96:201–216.
[53] Yao ZT, Ji XS, Sarker PK, Tang JH, Ge LQ, Xia MS, Xi YQ. A comprehensive review on the applications of coal fly ash. Earth-Science Reviewa 2015; 141:105–121.
[54] Patil SV, Nawle SC, Kulkarni SJ. Industrial applications of fly ash: A review. Interna-tional Journal of Science, Engineering and Technology Research 2013; 2:1659–1663.
[55] Rashid R, Frantz G. MSW nncinerator ash as aggregate in concrete and masonry. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering 1992; 4:353–368.
[56] Kockal NU. Utilisation of different types of coal fly ash in the production of ceramic tiles. Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Cerámica y Vidrio 2012; 51:297–304.
[57] Boccaccini AR, Petitmermet M, Wintermantel E. Glass-ceramics from municipal incinerator fly ash. American Ceramic Society Bulletin 1997; 76:75–78.
[58] Mulder E. Pre-treatment of MSWI fly ash for useful application. Waste Management 1996; 16:181–184.
[59] Garg RN, Kalra N, Harit RC, Sharma SK. Flyash incorporation effect on soil environment of texturally variant soils. Asia Pacific Journal on Environment and Development 2003; 10:59–63.
[60] Prabakar J, Dendorkar N, Morchhale RK. Influence of fly ash on strength behavior of typical soils. Construction and Building Materials 2004; 18:263–267.
[61] Chang AC, Lund LL, Page AL, Warneke JE. Physical properties of fly ash-amended soils. Journal of Environmental Quality 1977; 6:267–270.
[62] Rosen CJ, Olson D, Bierman PM. Swiss chard and alfalfa response to soils amended with municipal solid waste incinerator ash: Growth and elemental composition. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry 1994; 42:1361–1368.
[63] Ahmad A, Alam MM. Utilization of fly ash and Paecilomyces lilacinus for the control of Meloidogyne incognita. International Journal of Nematology 1997; 7:162–194.
[64] Khan NR, Khan MW, Singh K. Management of root-knot disease of tomato by the application of fly ash in soil. Plant Pathology 1997; 46:33–43.
[65] Kumar S, Sangwan P, Dhankhar RMV, Bidra S. Utilization of rice husk and their ash: A review. Research Journal of Chemical and Environmental Sciences 2013; 1:126–129.
[66] Gidde MR, Jivani AP. Waste to wealth – Potential of rice husk in India: A literature review. In: Proceeding of the International Conference on Clearner Technology and Environmental Management. Pondicherry, India, 4–6 January 2007; 586–590.
[67] Ghosal S, Moulik S. Use of rice husk ash as partial replacement with cement in concrete – A review. International Journal of Engineering Research 2004; 4:506–509.
[68] Chandrasekhar S, Satyanarayana KG, Pramada PN, Raghavan P, Gupta TN. Review processing, properties and applications of reactive silica from rice husk – An overview. Journal of Materials Science 2003; 38:3159–3168.
[69] Rao GR, Sastry ARK, Rohatgi PK. Nature and reactivity of silica available in rice husk and its ashes. Bulletin of Materials Science 1989; 12:469–479.
[70] Gonçalves MRF, Bergmann CP. Thermal insulators made with rice husk ashes: Production and correlation between properties and microstructure. Construction and Building Materials 2007; 21:2059–2065.
[71] Guo XL, Shi HS, Dick WA. Compressive strength and microstructural characteristics of class C fly ash geopolymer. Cement and Concrete Composites 2010; 32:142–147.
[72] Jiménez AF, Palomo A. Composition and microstucture of alkali activated fly ash binder: Effect of the activator. Cement and Concrete Research 2005; 35:1984–1992.
[73] Andini S, Cioffi R, Colangelo F, Griecoa T, Montagnaroa F, Santoro L. Coal fly ash as raw material for the manufacture of geopolymer-based products. Waste Management 2008; 28:416–423.
[74] Zhang Z, Wang H, Zhu Y, Reid A, Provis JL, Bullen F. Using fly ash to partially substitute metakaolin in geopolymer synthesis. Applied Clay Science 2014; 88–89:194–201.
[75] Rahim RHA, Azili KA, Man Z, Rahmiati T, Ismail L. Effect of solid to liquid ratio on the mechanical and physical properties of fly ash geopolymer without sodium silicate. Applied Mechanics and Materials 2014; 625:46–49.
[76] Arioz E, Arioz Ö, Koçkar ÖM. The effect of curing conditions on the properties of geopolymer samples. International Journal of Chemical Engineering and Applications 2013; 4:423–426.
[77] Somna K, Jaturapitakkul C, Kajitvichyanukul P, Chindaprasirt P. NaOH-activated ground fly ash geopolymer cured at ambient temperature. Fuel 2011; 90:2118–2124.
[78] van Jaarsveld JGS, van Deventer JSJ, Lukey GC. The effect of composition and temperature on the properties of fly ash- and kaolinite-based geopolymers. Chemical Engineering Journal 2002, 89:63–73.
[79] Sindhunata, van Deventer JSJ, Lukey GC, Xu H. Effect of curing temperature and silicate concentration on fly-ash-based geopolymerization. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research 2006, 45:3559–3568.
[80] Sutas J, Mana A, Pitak L. Effect of rice husk and rice husk ash to properties of bricks. Procedia Engineering 2012; 32:1061–1067.
[81] Mohan NV, Satyanarayana PVV, Rao KS. Performance of rice husk ash bricks. International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications 2012; 2:1906–1910.
[82] Agbede IO, Joel M. Effect of rice husk ash (RHA) on the properties of Ibaji burnt clay bricks. American Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research 2011; 2:674–677.
[83] Rahman MA. Properties of clay-sand-rice husk ash mixed bricks. International Journal of Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete 1987; 9:105–108.
[84] Raut S, Ralegaonkar R, Mandavgane S. Utilization of recycle paper mill residue and rice husk ash in production of light weight bricks. Archives of Civil and Mechanical Engineering 2013; 13:269–275.
[85] Hegazy BEE, Fouad HA, Hassanain AM. Incororating of water sludge, silica fume and rice husk ash in brick making. Advances in Environmental Research 2012; 1:83–96.
[86] Cultrone G, Sebastián E. Fly ash addition in clayey materials to improve the quality of solid bricks. Construction and Building Materials 2009; 23:1178–1184.
[87] Lingling X, Wei G, Tao W, Nanru Y. Study on fired bricks with replacing clay by fly ash in high volume ratio. Construction and Building Materials 2005; 19:243–247.
[88] Turgut P. Manufacturing of building bricks without Portland cement. Journal of Cleaner Production 2012; 37:361–367.
[89] Kayali O. High performance bricks from fly ash. In: 2005 World of Coal Ash (WOCA), Lexington, Kentucky, USA: Center for Applied Energy Research; 2005.
[90] Chindaprasirt P, Pimraksa K. A study of fly ash–lime granule unfired brick. Powder Technology 2008; 182:33–41.
[91] Ferone C, Colangelo F, Cioffi R, Montagnaro F, Santoro L. Mechanical performances of weathered coal fly ash based geopolymer bricks. Procedia Engineering 2011; 21:745–752.
[92] Reig L, Tashima MM, Borrachero MV, Monzó J, Cheeseman CR, Payá J. Properties and microstructure of alkali-activated red clay brick waste. Construction and Building Materials 2013; 43:98–106.
[93] Ahmari S, Zhang L. Durability and leaching behavior of mine tailings-based geopolymer bricks. Construction and Building Materials 2013; 44:743–750.
[94] Mathew BJ, Sudhakar M, Natarajan C. Development of coal ash – GGBS based geopolymer bricks. European International Journal of Science and Technology 2013; 2:133–139.
[95] Ibrahim WMW, Abduliah MMB, Sandu AV, Hussin K, Sandu IG, Ismail KN, Kadir AA, Binhussain M. Processing and characterization of fly ash-based geopolymer bricks. Revista de Chimie 2014; 65:1340–1345.
[96] Muduli SD, Sadangi JK, Nayak BD, Mishra BK. Effect of NaOH concentration in manufacture of geopolymer fly ash building brick. Greener Journal of Physical Sciences 2012; 3:204–211.
[97] Mastura WIW, Kamarudin H, Nizar IK, Bakri AMM, BnHussain M. Effect of curing system on properties of fly ash-based geopolymer bricks. International Review of Mechanical Engineering 2013; 7:67–71.
[98] ASTM. Standard specification for concrete aggregate, C33. Annual book of ASTM standards; 04(02).
[99] Vietnamese standard TCVN 1451–1998. Solid clay bricks. Ministry of Construction, Vietnam, 1998.
[100] Vietnamese standard TCVN 6355–2009. Bricks–Test methods. Ministry of Construction, Vietnam, 2009.
[101] ASTM. Standard test method for compressive strength of hydraulic cement mortars (Using 2-in. or [50-mm] cube specimens), C109. Annual book of ASTM standards; 04(01).
[102] Vietnamese standard TCVN 6477–2011. Concrete bricks. Ministry of Construction, Vietnam, 2011.
[103] Davidovits J. Geopolymer chemistry and applications. Geopolymer Institute, France 2008; ISBN: 9782951482012.
[104] Chern JC, Hwang CL, Tsai DH. Research and development of high-performance concrete in Taiwan. Concrete International 1995; 17:1–76.
[105] Hwang CL, Liu JJ, Lee LS, Lin FY. Densified mixture design algorithm and early properties of high-performance concrete. Journal of the Chinese Institute of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering 1996; 8:217–229.
[106] Chang CC, Hwang CL, Peng YN. Application of high-performance concrete to high-rise building in Taiwan. Advances in Structural Engineering 2001; 4:65–73.
[107] Tsai CL, Li LS, Chang CC, Hwang CL. Durability design and application of steel fiber reinforced concrete in Taiwan. The Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering 2009; 34:57–79.
[108] Tu TY, Chen YY, Hwang CL. Properties of HPC with recycled aggregates. Cement and Concrete Research 2006; 36:943–950.
[109] Hwang CL, Hung MF. Durability design and performance of self-consolidating lightweight concrete. Construction and Building Materials 2005; 19:619–626.
[110] Chang PK. An approach to optimizing mix design for properties of high-performance concrete. Cement and Concrete Research 2004; 34:623–629.
[111] Hwang CL, Huynh TP. Investigation into the use of unground rice husk ash to produce eco-friendly construction bricks. Construction and Building Materials 2015; 93:335–341.
[112] Chang PL, Peng YN, Hwang CL. A design consideration for durability of high-performance concrete. Cement & Concrete Composites 2001; 23:375–380.
[113] Chen YY, Bui LAT, Hwang CL. Effect of paste amount on the properties of self-consolidating concrete containing fly ash and slag. Construction and Building Materials 2013; 47:340–346.
[114] Hwang C. The effect of aggregate packing types on engineering properties of self-consolidating concrete. In: First International Symposium on Design, Performance and Use of Self-Consolidating Concrete. China 2005; 337–345.
[115] Liew YM, Kamarudin H, Al Bakri AMM, Bnhussain M, Luqman M, Nizar IK, Ruzaidi CM, Heah CY. Optimization of solids-to-liquid and alkali activator ratios of calcined kaolin geopolymeric powder. Construction and Building Materials 2012; 37:440–551.
[116] Villa C, Pecina ET, Torres R, Gomez L. Geopolymer synthesis using alkaline activation of natural zeolite. Construction and Building Materials 2010; 24:2084–2090.
[117] Heah CY, Kamarudin H, Al Bakri AMM, Luqman M, Nizar IK, Ruzaidi CM, Liew YM. Study on solids-to-liquid and alkaline activator ratios on kaolin-based geopolymers. Construction and Building Materials 2012; 35:912–922.
[118] Wang H, Li H, Yan F. Synthesis and mechanical properties of metakaolinite-based geopolymer. Colloids and Surfaces A 2005; 268:1–6.
[119] Gorhan G, Kurklu G. The influence of the NaOH solution on the properties of the fly ash-based geopolymer mortar cured at different temperatures. Composites: Part B 2014; 58:371–377.
[120] Heah CY, Kamarudin, H, Al Bakri AMM, Binhussain M, Luqman M, Nizar IK, Ruzaidi CM, Liew YM. Effect of curing profile on kaolin-based geopolymers. Physics Procedia 2011; 22:305–311.
[121] Rovnanik P. Effect of curing temperature on the development of hard structure of metakaolin-based geopolymers. Construction and Building Materials 2010; 24:1176–1183.
[122] Hardjito D, Cheak CC, Ing CHL. Strength and setting times of low calcium fly ash-based geopolymer mortar. Modern Applied Science 2008; 2:3–11.
[123] Duxson P, Provis JL, Lukey GC, Mallicoat SW, Kriven WM, van Deventer JSJ. Understanding the relationship between geopolymer composition, microstructure and mechanical properties. Colloids and Surfaces A 2005; 269:47–58.
[124] Xu W, Lo TY, Memon SA. Microstructure and reactivity of rich husk ash. Construction and Building Materials 2012; 29:541–447.
[125] Treacy MMJ, Higgins JB. Collection of simulated XRD powder patterns for zeolites. 5th edn. Elsevier, Netherlands; 2007.
[126] Zuhua Z, Xiao Y, Huajun Z, Yue C. Role of water in the synthesis of calcined kaoline-based geopolymer. Applied Clay Science 2009; 43:218–223.
[127] San Cristóbal AG, Castelló R, Martín MA, Vizcayno C. Zeolites prepared from calcined and mechanically modified kaolins: A comparative study. Applied Clay Science 2010; 49:239–246.
[128] Chandrasekhar S, Pramada PN. Investigation on the synthesis of zeolite NaX from kerala kaolin. Journal of Porous Materials 1999; 6:283–297.
[129] Kong DLY, Sanjayan JG. Damage behaviour of geopolymer composites exposed to elevated temperatures. Cement & Concrete Composites 2008; 30:986–991.
[130] Jiménnez AF, Palomo A, Criado M. Microstructure development of alkali-activated fly ash cement: A descriptive model. Cement and Concrete Research 2005; 35:1204–1209.
[131] Tangpagasit J, Cheerarot R, Jaturapitakkul C, Kiattikomol K. Packing effect and pozzolanic reaction of fly ash in mortar. Cement and Concrete Research 2005; 35: 1145–1151.
[132] Yip CK, Lukey GC, van Deventer JSJ. The coexistence of geopolymeric gel and calcium silicate hydrate at the early stage of alkaline activation. Cement and Concrete Research 2005; 35:1688–1697.
[133] Zhang MH, Lastra R, Malhotra VM. Rice-husk ash paste and concrete: Some aspects of hydration and the microstructure of the interfacial zone between the aggregate and paste. Cement and Concrete Research 1996; 26:963–977.
[134] Zejak R, Nikolic I, Blecic D, Radmilovic Vuk, Radmilovic V. Mechanical and microstructural properties of the fly-ash-based geopolymer paste and mortar. Materials and Technology 2013; 47:535–540.