臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

本論文提出一增進染料敏化太陽能電池(dye-sensitized solar cell, DSSC)光電轉換效率 (photovoltaic conversion efficiency, η)之結構，結構分為兩部分，第一部份為以水熱法 (hydro-thermal method)合成二氧化鈦 (titanium dioxide, TiO2) - 還原氧化石墨烯 (reduced graphene oxide, RGO)之複合材料並用於染料吸附層。第二部份為於染料吸附層與電解液 (electrolyte)間以濺鍍備製氧化銦鎵鋅 (indium gallium zinc oxide, IGZO)，並以太陽光模擬器 (sun light simulation system)、電化學阻抗分析儀 (electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, EIS) 配合一等效電路模型(equivalent circuit model)、場發射掃描式電子顯微鏡 (field emission scanning electron microscopy, FE-SEM)、能量色散X射線光譜 (energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer, EDS)、紫外線/可見光光譜儀 (ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometer, UV-Visible)、X射線光電子能譜儀/化學分析電子光譜 (X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, XPS/ electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis, ESCA)、X光繞射儀(X-ray diffractometer, XRD)、拉曼光譜儀 (Raman spectroscopy)以及穿透式電子顯微鏡 (transmission electron microscope)，探討還原氧化石墨烯 (RGO)與氧化銦鎵鋅(IGZO)應用於染料敏化太陽能電池之光電特性及串並聯模組 (series-parallel connection module)對染料敏化太陽能電池於低照度下 (under the low illumination)之光伏特性 (photovoltaic performance)、異質接面處之界面阻抗 (internal interface impedance)、表面形態 (surface morphology)、薄膜厚度 (thickness)、薄膜元素組成成分及能帶圖 (energy band diagram)與薄膜晶相 (crystal phase)。經由實驗結果得知因還原氧化石墨烯之高遷移率，其可以減短電荷轉移路徑，即由二氧化鈦的導電帶傳輸至導電玻璃之導電帶之路徑，即減少光生電子 (photo-generated electrons)與氧化染料分子 (oxidized-dye molecule)之復合機率，且薄膜能隙下降，其可以增加吸收光波段，增加光捕獲量，而還原氧化石墨烯之高比表面積 (high specific surface area)特性提升染料負載量。而氧化銦鎵鋅之功用為形成一能量阻擋層 (energy barrier)，阻擋光生電子與碘離子 (I-3)復合的機率，意即降低逆向復合 (reverse recombination)。以上二種修飾光陽極之方法皆可以提升太陽能電池的短路電流密度 (short-circuit current density, Jsc)。染料敏化太陽能電池處於低照度(low illumination)環境下效率有上升之趨勢，其原因為照度下降、光捕獲量下降，造成光生電子 (photo-generated electron)數目減少，所以電子間之散射 (scattering)下降，即光生量子效率 (photoluminescence quantum yield)上升。再將封裝完成之元件藉由電源量測單位(source measure unit, SMU)及國家儀器(National Instruments)之LabVIEW軟體進行無線遠端即時監控 (wireless-based remote real-time monitor)，分析元件於長時間下之穩定度 (stability)、生命期 (life-time)。

In this thesis, a way to improve the photovoltaic conversion efficiency (η) of dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC) has been provided. The structure was divided into two parts. In the first part, the reduced graphene oxide (RGO) - TiO2 composite was fabricated by using hydro-thermal method, which was acted as the dye - adsorbed layer. In the second part, the indium gallium zinc oxide (IGZO) was deposited between dye-adsorbed layer and electrolyte by using sputter system. The DSSC was investigated by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS), sun light simulation system, field emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS), ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometer (UV-Visible), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)/electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis (ESCA), X-ray diffractometer (XRD), Raman spectroscopy and transmission electron microscope (TEM). We investigated the photovoltaic properties, series-parallel connection module, internal interface impedance, surface morphology and energy band diagram of arrayed dye-sensitized solar cell based on RGO - TiO2 /IGZO photoelectrode under low illumination. According to the experimental results, due to the high mobility of RGO, which acted as a bridge and accelerated the electron transportation from conduction band of titanium dioxide to conduction band of fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) glass. That was to say, probability of electron recombination between photo-generated electrons and oxidized-dye molecule was reduced. Furthermore, the energy band gap of dye-adsorbed layer decreased after introducing RGO, which could extend the wavelength range of absorbed-light. Particularly, the amount of harvesting-light is increased. In addition, the high specific surface of RGO was able to increase the amount of dye-loading. The IGZO film was acted as an energy barrier to prevent I-3 from recombining with electrons, which means that it could reduce the probability of reverse recombination. Those modifications of photoelectrode could improve the short-circuit current density (Jsc) of DSSC. Because the photo-generated electrons were reduced with decrease in illumination intensity, that indicated the scattering among electrons was reduced. In order words, the photoluminescence quantum yield (PLQY) will be increased, and the photovoltaic conversion efficiency of DSSC could increase under lower illumination intensity. Finally, the device was investigated by using the wireless-based remote real-time monitor, stability and life-time by source measure unit (SMU) and LabVIEW from National Instruments.

Content
摘要 i
Abstract iv
誌謝 vii
Content ix
List of Tables xiii
List of Figures xv
Chapter 1 1
Background and Motivation 1
1.1 Background 1
1.1.1 Dye-sensitized Solar Cell 2
1.1.2 Flexible Dye-sensitized Solar Cell 4
1.1.3 Development of Working Electrode 4
1.1.4 Development of Sensitized-dye 6
1.1.5 Development of Electrolyte 7
1.1.6 Development of Counter Electrode 7
1.2 Motivates and Purpose 8
1.3 Synopsis of the Dissertation 10
Chapter 2 18
Introduction 18
2.1 Structure of Dye-sensitized Solar Cell 18
2.1.1 Transparent Substrate for the Electrode of DSSC 18
2.2 Working Principles for Dye-sensitized Solar Cell 19
2.2.1 Charge Recombination 21
2.3 Materials for Photoelectrode 22
2.3.1 Reduce Graphene Oxide 22
2.3.2 Indium Gallium Zinc Oxide 23
2.4 Definition of Photovoltaic parameters 25
2.4.1 Open Circuit Voltage (Voc) 26
2.4.2 Short Circuit Current Density (Jsc) 27
2.4.3 Fill Factor (F.F) 27
2.4.4 Photovoltaic Conversion Efficiency (η) 28
2.5 Principles of Measurement Facilities 31
2.5.1 Scanning Electron Microscope(SEM) 31
2.5.2 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy(XPS) or 33
Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis (ESCA) 33
2.5.3 Auger Electron Spectroscopy(AES) 34
2.5.4 Transmission Electron Microscope(TEM) 35
2.5.5 Ultraviolet and visible spectroscopy(UV-Visible) 36
2.5.6 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy(EIS) 37
2.5.7 Radio Frequency Sputter 40
Chapter 3 68
Experiment 68
3.1 Materials 68
3.2 Fabrication Processes 69
3.2.1 Substrate Cleanig 70
3.2.2 Fabrication of TiO2 – RGO Composite and Paste 70
3.2.3 Fabrication of IGZO- TiO2 - Reduced Graphene Oxide Composited Photoelectrode 71
3.2.4 Fabrication of Platinum Counter Electrode 72
3.2.5 Fabrication of Electrolyte 74
3.2.6 Fabrication of Dye 74
3.2.7 Fabrication of Dye-sensitized Solar Cell in series - parallel 74
3.3 Measurement Systems 75
3.3.1 Solar Simulator Measurement System 75
3.3.2 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) 75
3.3.3 Ultraviolet-Visible Spectroscopy (UV-vis) 76
3.3.4 Furnace 77
3.3.5 Radio Frequency Sputtering System 77
Chapter 4 88
Result and Discussion 88
4.1 Comparisons for Performances of DSSC Based on Photoelectrode with Various Weight Percentages of RGO 88
4.2 Characteristics of TiO2-Reduced Graphene Oxide Composite 91
4.2.1 Morphology 91
4.2.2 Component Analysis 91
4.2.3 Raman Spectra of TiO2-RGO Composite 92
4.2.4 Transmission Electron Microscope Measurement for TiO2-RGO Composite 93
4.2.5 X-Ray Diffraction of TiO2-RGO Composite 93
4.3 Comparisons of Performances of DSSCs Based on TiO2-IGZO Photoelectrode and TiO2 Photoelectrode 94
4.4 Characteristics of Indium Gallium Zinc Oxide Film 98
4.4.1 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 98
4.4.2 X-ray Diffraction (XRD) 99
4.4.3 X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) 99
4.4.4 The Estimation of Band Gap 101
4.4.5 Ultroviolet Photoelectron Spectrometer (UPS) 102
4.4.6 Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES) Depth Profile 104
4.5 Comparisons of Performances of DSSC Based on TiO2-RGO- IGZO and TiO2 Photoelectrodes 104
4.6 Photovoltaic Performances of DSSCs in Series and Parallel 107
4.7 Photovoltaic Performances of DSSCs in Serial and Parallel Structure under Lower Illumination 112
4.7.1 Electrochemical impedance spectroscopic for DSSCs in Serial and Parallel Structure under Lower Illumination Intensity 114
4.8 Photovoltaic Performances of DSSCs in Serial and Parallel Structure under Fluorescent lamp 117
4.8.1 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopic of DSSCs in Serial and Parallel Structure under Fluorescent Lamp 118
4.9 Stability for Photovoltaic Properties of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cell by Wireless-based Remote Real-time Monitoring System 121
Chapter 5 185
Conclusions 185
Chapter 6 189
Future Prospects 189
References 190

 
List of Tables

Table 3-1 Characteristics of FTO-glass and ITO-PET substrates 87
Table 4-1 The photovoltaic performances of DSSC based on photoelectrodes with various weight percentages of RGO. 165
Table 4-2 The specific surface area and amount of dye adsorption of photoelectrode based on vervious weight percentage of RGO and TiO2. 166
Table 4-3 The photovoltaic performances of DSSCs based on various deposition time for IGZO film on TiO2 photoelectrode 167
Table 4-4 The photovoltaic performances of DSSCs based on TiO2 - IGZO photoelectrode, TiO2 photoelectrode and literatures [138,139]. 168
Table 4-5 The resistance values of equivalent circuit of DSSCs based on TiO2 - IGZO photoelectrode, TiO2 photoelectrode and literatures [138,139]. 169
Table 4-6 The photovoltaic parameters of DSSCs based on TiO2 -RGO-IGZO photoelectrode (TGIP), TiO2 photoelectrode (TP) and literatures [138,139,155,156]. 170
Table 4-7 The values of components in the equivalent circuit for the DSSCs based on TiO2 -RGO-IGZO photoelectrode (TGIP), TiO2 photoelectrode (TP) and literatures [138,139]. 171
Table 4-8 The photovoltaic parameters of DSSCs based on TiO2 -RGO-IGZO photoelectrode (TGIP) in series. 172
Table 4-9 The values of components in the equivalent circuit for the DSSCs based on TiO2 -RGO-IGZO photoelectrode (TGIP) in series. 173
Table 4-10 The photovoltaic parameters of DSSCs based on TiO2 -RGO-IGZO photoelectrode (TGIP) in parallel. 174
Table 4-11 The values of components in the equivalent circuit for the DSSCs based on TiO2 -RGO-IGZO photoelectrode (TGIP) in parallel. 175
Table 4-12 The photovoltaic parameters of DSSCs based on TiO2 -RGO-IGZO photoelectrode (TGIP) in two series and two parallel. 176
Table 4-13 The comparison of photovoltaic parameters of DSSC with other literature [159,160]. 177
Table 4-14 The values of components in the equivalent circuit for the DSSCs based on TiO2 -RGO-IGZO photoelectrode (TGIP) in two series and two parallel. 178
Table 4-15 The photovoltaic parameters of flexible DSSCs based on TiO2 -RGO-IGZO photoelectrode (TGIP) in series and parallel. 179
Table 4-16 The photovoltaic parameters of DSSCs based on TiO2 -RGO-IGZO photoelectrode (TGIP) in series and parallel under low illumination. 180
Table 4-17 The photovoltaic parameters of DSSCs based on TiO2 photoelectrode (TP) in series and parallel under low illumination. 181
Table 4-18 The values of components in the equivalent circuit for the DSSCs based on TiO2 -RGO-IGZO photoelectrode (TGIP) in series and parallel under low illumination. 182
Table 4-19 The photovoltaic parameters of DSSCs based on TiO2 -RGO-IGZO photoelectrode (TGIP) in series and parallel under fluorescent lamp 183
Table 4-20 The values of components in the equivalent circuit for the DSSCs based on TiO2 -RGO-IGZO photoelectrode (TGIP) in series and parallel under fluorescent lamp. 184


List of Figures

Fig. 1-01. The productions annual growth forecast for photovoltaic energies 14
Fig. 1-02. The efficiency chart of various classes of solar energy conversion devices 15
Fig. 1-03. The molecule structures of N3 dye, N621 dye and N719 dye 16
Fig. 1-04. The flow chart of this thesis. 17
Fig. 2-01. The working principle of dye-sensitized solar cell [66] 42
Fig. 2-02. The energy diagram of reverse recombination 43
Fig. 2-03. The molecule structure of graphene [77] 44
Fig. 2-04. The molecule structure of graphene [78] 45
Fig. 2-05. The molecule structure of reduced graphene oxide [79] 46
Fig. 2-06. The atom localization for crystal IGZO [88] 47
Fig. 2-07. The atom localization for crystal IGZO [89] 48
Fig. 2-08. The atom bonding perspective for (a) silicon and (b) IGZO [90] 49
Fig. 2-09. The schematic diagram of open circuit voltage [97] 50
Fig. 2-10. The schematic diagram of fill factor [98] 51
Fig. 2-11. The relation between F.F., Rsh(shunt resistance), current density, Rs (series resistance) and voltage 52
Fig. 2-12. The instrument appearance of SEM [105] 53
Fig. 2-13. The instrument structure of SEM [106] 54
Fig. 2-14. The instrument mechanism of SEM [107] 55
Fig. 2-15. The instrument mechanism of EDS [108] 56
Fig. 2-16. The instrument mechanism of XPS [109] 57
Fig. 2-17. The instrument appearance of XPS [110] 58
Fig. 2-18. The instrument mechanism of AES [111] 59
Fig. 2-19. The mechanism of Auger electron [112] 60
Fig. 2-20. The instrument mechanism of TEM 61
Fig. 2-21. The instrument apperance of TEM [116]. 62
Fig. 2-22. The ultraviolet / visible spectrophotometer [120] 63
Fig. 2-23. The electrical equivalent circuits for EIS [122] 64
Fig. 2-24. The electronic components for EIS analysis result (a) single resistance; (b)single capacitance [123] 65
Fig. 2-25. The electronic components for EIS analysis result (a) series between resistance and capacitance; (b) parallel between resistance and capacitance [123] 66
Fig. 2-26. The mechanism of sputter 67
Fig. 3-01. The flow chart of DSSC fabrication 78
Fig. 3-02. The image of heater and autoclave 79
Fig. 3-03. The appearance for composite powder of reduced graphene oxide-TiO2 80
Fig. 3-04. The appearance of J-V measurement system 81
Fig. 3-05. The theoretical model for DSSC in EIS measurement 82
Fig. 3-06. The appearance of EIS measurement system 84
Fig. 3-07. The appearance of furnace system 85
Fig. 3-08. The appearance of radio frequency(R.F.) sputtering system 86
Fig. 4-01. The J-V curves of DSSC based on photoelectrode with various weight percentages of RGO 122
Fig. 4-02. The SEM image of TiO2-RGO composite powder 123
Fig. 4-03. The component analysis of TiO2-RGO composite powder from 124
EDS 124
Fig. 4-04. The Raman spectra of TiO2 – RGO composite and RGO powder 125
Fig. 4-05. The transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of TiO2 – RGO composite particle 126
Fig. 4-06. The high-resolution transmission electron microscope (TEM) image of TiO2 – RGO composite particle 127
Fig. 4-07. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) pattern of TiO2 – RGO composite; (*) fase TiO2 anatase. 128
Fig. 4-08. The current density-voltage curves for DSSCs based on TiO2-IGZO photoelectrode. 129
Fig. 4-09. The current density-voltage curve and dark J-V curve for DSSC based on TiO2-IGZO photoelectrode. 130
Fig. 4-10. The current density-voltage curve and dark J-V curve for DSSC based on TiO2 photoelectrode 131
Fig. 4-11. The Nyquist plots and equivalent circuit for DSSCs based on TiO2 -IGZO photoelectrode and TiO2 photoelectrode. 132
Fig. 4-12. The energy band diagram for DSSC based on TIP. 133
Fig. 4-13. The morphology images of (a)TiO2 ; (b) TiO2 – IGZO composite film. 134
Fig. 4-14. The XRD patterns of TiO2 and TiO2-IGZO (*) fase TiO2 anatase 135
Fig. 4-15. The XPS spectrum of In 3d5/2 in IGZO film. 136
Fig. 4-16. The XPS spectrum of Ga 2p3/2 in IGZO film 137
Fig. 4-17. The XPS spectrum of Zn 2p3/2 in IGZO film. 138
Fig. 4-18. The XPS spectrum of O 1s in IGZO film. 139
Fig. 4-19. (a) The transmittance of IGZO film;(b)The relationship between (αhυ)2 and hv for IGZO film. 140
Fig. 4-20. The ultroviolet photoelectron spectrometer (UPS) for IGZO film. 141
Fig. 4-21. The depth profile of auger electron spectroscopy (AES) for IGZO – TiO2 composite film. 142
Fig. 4-22. The J-V curves of the DSSCs based on TiO2-RGO-IGZO photoelectrode (TGIP) and TiO2 photoelectrode (TP). 143
Fig. 4-23. (a) The equivalent circuit for the DSSC ; (b)The Nyquist plots of the DSSCs based on TiO2 – RGO – IGZO photoelectrode and TiO2 photoelectrode. 144
Fig. 4-24. The absorptivity of the N719 dye, which was desorbed from TiO2 – RGO – IGZO photoelectrode and TiO2 photoelectrode. 145
Fig. 4-25. The current - voltage of the DSSCs based on TiO2 – RGO – IGZO photoelectrode and DSSCs in series. 146
Fig. 4-26. (a) The equivalent circuit for the DSSC ; (b)The Nyquist plots of the DSSCs based on TiO2 – RGO – IGZO photoelectrode and DSSCs in series. 147
Fig. 4-27. The current - voltage of the DSSCs based on TiO2 – RGO – IGZO photoelectrode and DSSCs in parallel. 148
Fig. 4-28. (a) The equivalent circuit for the DSSC ; (b)The Nyquist plots of the DSSCs based on TiO2 – RGO – IGZO photoelectrode and DSSCs in parallel. 149
Fig. 4-29. The current - voltage of the DSSCs based on TiO2 – RGO – IGZO photoelectrode and DSSCs in series and parallel. 150
Fig. 4-30. (a) The equivalent circuit for the DSSC ; (b)The Nyquist plots of the DSSCs based on TiO2 – RGO – IGZO photoelectrode and DSSCs in series and parallel. 151
Fig. 4-31. The real picture for two DSSCs are in series. 152
Fig. 4-32. The real picture for two DSSCs are in parallel. 153
Fig. 4-33. The real picture for four DSSCs are in series and parallel. 154
Fig. 4-34. The current-voltage curves of flexible DSSC based on TiO2 – RGO – IGZO photoelectrode and DSSCs in two series and two parallel. 155
Fig. 4-35. The current-voltage curves of DSSC based on TiO2 – RGO – IGZO photoelectrode and DSSCs in series and parallel under low illumination. 156
Fig. 4-36. (a) The equivalent circuit for DSSCs ; (b)The Nyquist plots of the DSSCs based on TiO2 – RGO – IGZO photoelectrode and four DSSCs in series and parallel under low illumination. 157
Fig. 4-37. The current-voltage curves of DSSC based on TiO2 – RGO – IGZO photoelectrode and DSSCs in series and parallel under T5 fluorescent lamp. 158
Fig. 4-38. (a) The equivalent circuit for DSSCs ; (b)The Nyquist plots of the DSSCs based on TiO2 – RGO – IGZO photoelectrode and four DSSCs in series and parallel under low illumination. 159
Fig. 4-39. The spectrum of solar simulator. 160
Fig. 4-40. The spectrum of T5 fluorescent lamp. 161
Fig. 4-41 The specification of DSSCs in two series and two parallel. 162
Fig. 4-42 The schematic diagram for wireless-based remote real-time monitoring system. 163
Fig. 4-43 stability analysis for photovoltaic conversion efficiency of DSSC which is sealed by surlyn for 12 hours. 164

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