臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

在學習新詞時，兒童根據過去的語言經驗所形成的既有知識以及環境中的外在線索都會影響兒童對於詞彙語意或詞類的學習。其中，既有的語言知識或表徵會受到相關學習機制的影響，而外在線索（例如：社會性訊息）的指向有時與既有知識或經驗相輔相成，有時可能相悖。到底兒童依循何種線索進行判斷？不同年齡之兒童是否有相同的表現？本研究以三歲組、三歲半組、四歲組的兒童為對象，探討兒童在判斷虛構詞的詞類時，提供社會性訊息對於兒童表現的影響。研究結果顯示，在無社會性線索之下，兒童判斷虛構詞詞彙類別的表現與成人給予的語言刺激相對頻率分布相仿。當虛構詞出現在動詞偏向較為明顯的結構中（「會＿＿＿」）和動詞偏向較不明顯的結構中（「在＿＿＿」），三組兒童皆對於前者給予較多的動作判斷。當外加社會性訊息時，三歲半組的兒童其跟隨能力比三歲組和四歲組兒童高。雖然三歲組和四歲組社會性訊息的整體跟隨力並無差異，但兩組兒童的表現並不相同：四歲組的兒童呈現兩極化的表現，有個人的特定偏好；而三歲組兒童則沒有出現明顯的個人對於特定線索的偏好。整體來說，本研究結果顯示不同年齡的兒童使用的判斷線索比重不同，即使是同一年齡組的兒童，使用的線索也會出現個別差異。

When learning a new word, both children’s current language knowledge and external cues in the environment would affect their learning. In addition, children’s language knowledge or representations would be affected by mechanisms relevant to language learning; and social cues are one of the most important external information that would assist learning. In some cases, external cues may align with children’s internal language learning experience, while in others the two may conflict. When there is a conflict, which one do children rely on to make judgments? Do children of different ages perform similarly? The goal of the current study was to investigate novel word category judgment in children of different ages with or without the presence of social cues. Fifty-four children aged from 35 to 52 months participated in the study. The children were further divided into three age groups: 3-year-old, 3.5-year-old and 4-year-old groups. Results showed that when social cues were not provided, children’s judgment was very similar to the statistical distribution of specific sentence constructions in adults’ language input. In addition, all three groups considered novel words to be more verb like when the verbs occurred in a verb-biased construction ( “huei__”) than in a construction (“zhai____”) of a more even distribution. When social cues were provided, the 3.5-year-old group outperformed the other two groups in the rate of following social cues. Although the 3- and 4-year-old groups showed similar group means in the rate of following social cues, further analysis revealed large individual differences in the 4-year-old group. The children in the 4-year-old group can be further divided into a subgroup of children relying more heavily on social cues and the other subgroup of children relying more heavily on language learning experience or knowledge. This pattern was not observed in the 3-year-old group, in which most children did not show a clear bias toward social cues or language learning experience or knowledge. In general, these findings suggested that children of different ages might weight cues differently; and even within the same age group, individual differences in cue reliance might exist.

目次
表次 i
圖次 ii
第一章 緒論 1
第一節 研究背景與動機 1
第二節 研究目的與問題 5
第二章 文獻探討 7
第一節 詞彙類別在語言中扮演的角色 7
第二節 從不同理論觀點看詞彙歸類的能力 8
第三節 線索之間的交互作用 15
第四節 習中文兒童的詞彙類別習得 20
第三章 研究方法 23
第一節 研究架構與流程 23
第二節 語料分析 26
第三節 詞類判斷作業 26
第四節 受試對象 33
第五節 資料處理與分析 36
第四章 研究結果 39
第一節 語料分析結果 39
第二節 虛構詞詞類判斷作業施測結果 41
第五章 研究討論與建議 57
第一節 主要研究結果 57
第二節 研究結果討論 58
第三節 臨床應用 66
第四節 研究限制與未來研究方向 67
參考文獻 71
附錄 83
附錄一 施測句 83
附錄二 家長同意書 84
附錄三 練習題 86
附錄四 成人給予兒童的原始語料分析 87
附錄五 成人給予兒童的累進句數及相對累進比例分析 88

表次
表一 不同性別受試者在各作業表現之獨立樣本t檢定摘要表 41
表二 各年齡組在練習題表現的單因子變異數分析摘要表 43
表三 語言能力、練習題和跟隨社會性訊息積差相關分析摘要 44
表四 各年齡組在練習題各句型中答對題數之混合設計變異數分析摘要表 44
表五 作業一各年齡組在不同句型中判斷詞類之混合設計變異數分析摘要表 49
表六 作業一成對樣本t檢定分析摘要表 50
表七 各年齡組判斷虛構詞有特定偏向的人數及比例 51
表八 各年齡組在跟隨社會性訊息表現的單因子變異數分析摘要表 52
表九 社會性訊息跟隨題數少於或等於四題的受試者的作業表現細項 54
表十 社會性訊息跟隨題數多於十二題的受試者的作業表現細項 56

圖次
圖一 研究架構圖 25
圖二 影片範例與呈現步驟 31
圖三 作業二流程說明圖 33
圖四 「在+名詞」和「在+動詞」兩種句型在各月齡的相對比例 40
圖五 各年齡組在練習題中不同句型的答對題數 45
圖六 不同年齡階段在不同句型中判斷虛構詞為動詞的比例 48
圖七 作業一中各年齡組依不同句型判斷虛構詞為動詞的比例 49
圖八 各年齡組社會性訊息跟隨題數 52
圖九 各年齡組跟隨社會性訊息題數的人數分布 53

一、中文部份
林寶貴、林美秀（民82）。學前兒童語言障礙評量表。
許洪坤（民73）。中國兒童學習國語及語言發展階段研究。漢學研究通，3卷，四期，219-220。
張欣戊（1991）。學前兒童語言能力測驗。行政院國家科學委員會專題研究計畫成果報告。國立台灣大學心理系。
張顯達（2003）。「學前兒童語言能力的測驗」的使用。國立台灣大學。
張顯達、張鑑如、柯華葳、蔡素娟（2011）。台灣兒童語言語料庫之建置（NSC-96-2420-H-002-030）。
黃茜郁（民105）。華語幼兒在自然對話中以語意為基礎之句法使用分析（未出版之碩士論文）。國立高雄師範大學，高雄市。
葉家利（民97）。臺灣華語幼兒名詞和動詞之習得研究（未出版之碩士論文）。私立輔仁大學，新北市。
劉惠美、曹峰銘（2010）。華語嬰幼兒溝通發展量表（台灣版）（MCDI-T）。
劉惠美、陳昱君（民104）。華語嬰幼兒表達性詞彙的語意內容及詞類組成之發展。教育心理學報，47卷，2期，217-242。

二、英文部份
Akhtar, N., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (1996). The role of discourse novelty in children’s early word learning. Child Development, 67, 635–645.
Akhtar, N. (1999). Acquiring basic word order: evidence for data-driven learning of syntactic structures. Journal of Child Language, 26, 339-356.
Ambridge, B., Kidd, E., Rowland, C. F., & Theakston, A.L. (2015). The ubiquity of frequency effects in first language acquisition. Journal of Child Language, 42(2), 239–273.
Arunachalam, S. & Waxman, S.R. (2011). Grammatical form and semantic context in verb learning. Language Learning and Development, 7, 169-184.
Baldwin, D.A. (1991). Infants' contribution to the achievement of joint reference. Child Development, 62(5), 875-890.
Brady, T.F., & Oliva, A. (2008). Statistical learning using real-world scenes: Extracting categorical regularities without conscious intent. Psychological Science, 19, 678–685.
Brojde, C.L., Ahmed, S., & Colunga, E. (2012). Bilingual and Monolingual Children Attend to Different Cues When Learning New Words. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 155.
Brown R. (1973). A first language: the early stages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Brown, J., Acel, B., Jimenez, L. Kaufman S.B. and Grant, K.P. (2010). Intact implicit learning in autism spectrum conditions. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1, 1-24.
Childers, J.B., & Tomasello, M. (2002). Two-year-olds learn novel nouns, verbs, and conventional actions from massed or distributed exposures. Developmental psychology, 38(6), 967-978.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the Thepry of Syntax. MIT Press.
Christiansen, M.H. & Monaghan, P. (2006). Discovering verbs through multiple-cue integration. In K. Hirsh-Pasek & R.M. Golinkoff (Eds.), Action meets words: How children learn verbs (pp. 88-107). New York: Oxford University Press.
Colonnesi, C. Stams, G.J.J.M., Koster, I. & Noom, M.J. (2010). The relation between pointing and language development: A meta-analysis. Developmental Review, 30, 352-366.
Conway, C.M., & Christiansen, M.H. (2005). Modality-constrained statistical learning of tactile, visual, and auditory sequences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 24–39.
Conwell E. & Morgan J.L. (2012). Is It a Noun or Is It a Verb? Resolving the Ambicategoricality Problem. Language Learning and Development, 8(2), 87-112.
Dawson, G., Toth, K., Abbott, R., Osterling, J., Munson, J., Estes, A., & Liaw, J. (2004). Early social attention impairments in autism: social orienting, joint attention, and attention to distress. Developmental Psychology, 40(2), 271-283.
Diesendruck, G., Markson, L., Akhtar, N., & Reudor, A. (2004). Two-year-olds’ sensitivity to speakers’ intent: An alternative account of Samuelson and Smith. Developmental Science, 7, 33–41.
D’Odorico, L., & Fasolo, M. (2007). Nouns and verbs in vocabulary acquisition of Italian children. Journal of Child Language, 34(4), 891-907.
Fiser, J., & Aslin, R.N. (2002). Statistical learning of higher-order temporal structure from visual shape sequences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 28, 458–467.
Fitneva, S.A., Christiansen M.H., & Monaghan P. (2009). From sound to syntax: phonological constraints on children's lexical categorization of new words. Journal of Child Language, 36, 967-997.
Fusaro, M., & Harris, P.L. (2013). Dax Gets the Nod: Toddlers Detect and Use Social Cues to Evaluate Testimony. Developmental Psychology, 49(3), 514–522.
Gebhart, A.L., Newport, E.L., & Aslin, R.N. (2009). Statistical learning of adjacent and nonadjacent dependencies among nonlinguistic sounds. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 16, 486–490.
Gentner, D., & Boroditsky, L. (2001). Individuation, relativity, and early word learning. Language, culture and cognition, 3, 215-256.
Gerken LA, Wilson R, & Lewis W. (2005). Infants can use distributional cues to form syntactic categories. Journal of Child Language, 32, 249–268.
Gertner, Y., Fisher, C., & Eisengart, J. (2006). Learning words and rules: Abstract knowledge of word order in early sentence comprehension. Psychological Science, 17, 684–691.
Gleitman, L.R. (1990). The structural sources of verb meaning. Language acquisition, 1, 3–55.
Gliga, T., & Csibra, G. (2009). One-year-old infants appreciate the referential nature of deictic gestures and words. Psychological Science, 20(3), 347-353.
Gliga, T., Elsabbagh, M., Hudry, K., Charman, T., & Johnson, M.H. (2012). Gaze following, gaze reading, and word learning in children at risk for autism. Child Development, 83(3), 926-938.
Goldfield, B.A. & Reznick, J.S. (1990). Early lexical acquisition: rate, content, and the vocabulary spurt. Journal of Child Language, 17, 171-183.
Gomez, R.L. & Gerken, L.A. (2000). Artificial grammar learning by one-year-olds leads to specific and abstract knowledge. Cognition, 70, 109-135.
Goldstein, M.H., King, A.P., & West, M.J. (2003). Social interaction shapes babbling: Testing parallels between birdsong and speech. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100, 8030–3035.
Grassmann, S., & Tomasello, M. (2010). Young children follow pointing over words in interpreting acts of reference. Developmental Science, 13(1), 252-263.
Hauser, M.D., Chomsky, N., & Fitch, W.T. (2002). The Faculty of Language: What Is It, Who Has It, and How Did It Evolve? Science, 298, 1569–1579.
Hsu, H.J., & Bishop, D.V.M. (2011). Grammatical Difficulties in Children with Specific Language Impairment: Is Learning Deficient? Human Development, 53, 264-277.
Imai, M., Li, L., Haryu, E,, Okada, H., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Golinkoff, R., Shigematsu, J. (2008). Novel noun and verb learning in Chinese-, English-, and Japanese-speaking children. Child Development, 79, 979–1000.
Iverson, J.M., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2005). Gesture paves the way for language development. Psychological Science, 16(5), 367-371.
Jaswal, V.K., & Hansen, M.B. (2006). Learning words: children disregard some pragmatic information that conflicts with mutual exclusivity. Developmental Science, 9(2), 158-165.
Kelly, M. (1992). Using sound to solve syntactic problems: The role of phonology in grammatical category assignments. Psychological Review, 99, 349–363.
Krogh, L., Vlach, H.A., & Johnson, S.P. (2012). Statistical learning across development: flexible yet constrained. Frontiers in Psychology, 3, 598.
Kuhl, P.K., Williams, K.A., Lacerda, F., Stevens, K.N. & Lindblom, B. (1992). Linguistic experience alters phonetic perception in infants by 6 months of age. Science, 255, 606-608.
Kuhl, P.K., Tsao, F.M. & Liu, H.M. (2003). Foreign -language experience in infancy: Effects of short-term exposure and social interaction in phonetic learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100, 9096-9101.
Lieven, E., Pine, J., & Baldwin, G. (1997). Lexically-based learning and early grammatical development. Journal of Child Language, 24, 187-219.
Marcus, G.F., Vijayan, S., Bandi Rao, S. & Vishton, P. M. (1999). Rule learning by seven-month-old infants. Science, 293, 77-79.
Matthews D., Lieven E., Theakston A. & Tomasello M. (2005). The role of frequency in the acquisition of English word order. Cognitive Development, 20, 121-136.
Maye J., Werker J.F., & Gerken L. (2002). Infant sensitivity to distributional information can affect phonetic discrimination. Cognition, 82, B101-B111.
Mayo, J. & Eigsti, I. (2012). Brief Report: A Comparison of Statistical Learning in School-Aged Children with High Functioning Autism and Typically Developing Peers. Journal of Autism Development Disorder, 42, 2476-2485.
Mayr, U. (1996). Spatial attention and implicit sequence learning: Evidence for independent learning of spatial and nonspatial sequences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 22, 350–364.
Mintz, T.H. (2003). Frequent frames as a cue for grammatical categories in child directed speech. Cognition, 90(1), 91–117.
Mintz , T.H. (2006). Finding the verbs: distributional cues to categories available to young learners. Action Meets Word: How Children Learn Verbs. New York: Oxford University Press; pp. 31–63.
Monaghan, P., Chater, N., & Christiansen, M.H. (2005). The differential contribution of phonological and distributional cues in grammatical categorization. Cognition, 96, 143–182.
Morales, M., Mundy, P. & Rojas, J. (2000). Following the direction of gaze and language development in 6-month-olds. Infant Behavior and Development, 21(2), 373-377.
Mundy, P., Sigman, M., & Kasari, C. (1990). A longitudinal study of joint attention and language development in autistic children. Journal of Autism Developmental Disorder, 20(1), 115-128.
Mundy, P. & Gomes, A. (1998). Individual differences in joint attention skill development in the second year. Infant Behavior and Development, 21(3), 469-482.
Nappa, R., Wessel, A., McEldoon, K.L., Gleitman, L. R., & Trueswell, J.C. (2009). Use of Speaker's Gaze and Syntax in Verb Learning. Language Learning and Development, 5(4), 203-234.
Otto, B. (2010). Language development in early childhood education (3rd edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Paquette-Smith, M. & Johnson, E.K. (2016) Toddlers' use of grammatical and social cues to learn novel words. Language Learning and Development, 12(3), 328-337.
Pelucchi, B., Hay, J.F., & Saffran, J.R. (2009). Statistical Learning in a Natural Language by 8-Month-Old Infants. Child Development, 80, 674-685.
Pinker, S. (1984). Language Learnability and Language Development. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Pinker, S. (1994). How could a child use verb syntax to learn verb semantics? In: Gleitman LR, Landau B, editors, The acquisition of the lexicon (pp. 377–410). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press.
Redington, M., Chater, N., & Finch, S. (1998). Distributional information: A powerful cue for acquiring syntactic categories. Cognitive Science, 22, 435–469.
Reznick, J.S.; & Goldfield, B.A.(1992). Rapid change in lexical development in comprehension and production. Developmental Psychology, 28, 406-413.
Romberg, A.R., & Saffran, J.R. (2010). Statistical learning and language acquisition. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science, 1(6), 906-914.
Roseberry, S., Hirsh-Pasek, K., Parish-Morris, J., & Golinkoff, R.M. (2009). Live Action: Can Young Children Learn Verbs From Video? Child Development, 80(5), 1360–1375.
Rubino, R.B., & Pine, J.M. (1998). Subject–verb agreement in Brazilian Portuguese: what low error rates hide. Journal of Child Language, 25, 35–39.
Ruble, D.N. & Nakamura, C.Y. (1972). Task orientation versus social orientation in young children and their attention to relevant social cues. Child Development, 43(2), 471-480.
Saffran, J.R., Aslin, R.N. and Newport, E.L. (1996). Statistical Learning by 8-Month-Old Infants. Science, 274, 1926-1928.
Saffran, J.R. (2003). Statistical Language Learning: Mechanisms and Constraints. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12, 110-114.
Saffran, J.R., & Wilson, D.P. (2003). From syllables to syntax: Multi-level statistical learning by 12- month-old infants. Infancy, 4, 273–284.
Schapiro, A. & Turk-Browne, N. (2015). Statistical Learning. Brain Mapping: An Encyclopedic Reference, 3, 501-506.
Shneidman, L.A., Arroyo, M.E., Levine, S. C., & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2013). What counts as effective input for word learning? Journal of Child Language, 40(3), 672-686.
Samuelson, L.K., & Smith, L.B. (1998). Memory and attention make smart word learning: an alternative account of Akhtar, Carpenter, and Tomasello. Child Development, 69, 94–104.
St Clair, M.C., Monaghan, P., & Christiansen, M.H. (2010). Learning grammatical categories from distributional cues: Flexible frames for language acquisition. Cognition, 116, 341- 360.
Tardif, T., Shatz, M., & Naigles, L. (1997). Caregiver speech and children's use of nouns versus verbs: A comparison of English, Italian, and Mandarin. Journal of Child Language, 24, 535-565.
Thompson, L.A., & Massaro, D.W. (1994). Children's Integration of Speech and Gestures in Comprehension. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 57, 327-354.
Thorpe, K., & Fernald, A. (2006). Knowing what a novel word is not: Two-year-olds “listen through” ambiguous adjectives in fluent speech. Cognition, 100(3), 389–433.
Tomasello, M., (1992). First Verbs: A Case Study of Early Grammatical Development. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Tomasello, M., & Barton, M. (1994). Learning words in non-ostensive contexts. Developmental Psychology, 30, 639–650.
Tomasello, M. and Akhtar, N. (1995). Two-year-olds use pragmatic cues to differentiate reference to objects and actions. Cognitive Development, 10, 201-224.
Tomasello, M. (2000a). The social-pragmatic theory of word learning. Pragmatics, 10(4), 401–413.
Tomasello, M. (2000b). The item-based nature of children’s early syntactic development. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 4(4), 156–163.
Tomasello, M. (2001). Perceiving intentions and learning words in the second year of life. In M. T. E. Bates (Ed.), Language development: The essential readings (pp. 111-128).
Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing a Language: A Usage-based Theory of Language Acquisition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Waxman, S., Fu, X., Arunachalam, S., Leddon, E., Geraghty, K., & Song, H. (2013). Are Nouns Learned Before Verbs? Infants Provide Insight into a Longstanding Debate. Child Development Perspectives, 7(3), 10.
Zeeland, A.A.S., McNealy, K., Wang A.T., Sigman M., Bookhelmer, S.Y. & Dapretto, M. (2010). No Neural Evidence of Statistical Learning During Exposure to Artificial Languages in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Biological Psychiatry, 68, 345-351.