臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

籃球選手成就目標取向、知覺動機氣候及自覺能力對賽前狀態性焦慮與因應策略之影響

摘 要
本研究的目的在探討男、女籃球選手成就目標取向、知覺動機氣候、自覺能力、賽前狀態性焦慮與因應策略之間的差異及相關與預測。本研究以90年高中籃球聯賽之男、女選手286位選手為受試對象，其中包括男生172名；女生114名，平均年齡16.74±0.89歲。受試者先參加說明並填寫個人資料與成就目標取向量表、知覺動機氣候量表、自覺能力量表及因應策略量表。接著在賽前一小時填寫賽前狀態性焦慮量表。本研究資料以獨立樣本t考驗、皮爾遜積差相關和多元逐步迴歸分析後發現：
（一）t考驗分析發現男選手在工作取向、知覺自我氣候、自覺能力、認知焦慮方向性、身體焦慮方向性、自信心強度、自信心方向性及因應策略中的「針對問題」方面高於女選手。
（二）積差相關發現:1. 男選手的認知焦慮強度與知覺自我氣候呈負相關與自覺能力呈正相關； 2. 男選手的認知焦慮方向性與工作取向與自覺能力呈正相關； 3. 男選手的身體焦慮強度與自覺能力呈負相關； 4.男、女選手的身體焦慮方向性與自覺能力呈正相關; 5.男選手的自信心強度與工作取向、知覺工作氣候、自覺能力呈正相關，女選手的自信心強度與知覺自我氣候及自覺能力量正相關；6.男選手的自信心方向性與工作取向、知覺工作氣候及自覺能力呈正相關；女選手的自信心方向性與知覺工作氣候及自覺能力呈正相關；7.男選手的針對問題與工作取向、自我取向、知覺工作氣候、知覺自我氣候及自覺能力呈正相關；女選手的針對問題與工作取向、知覺工作氣候及自覺能力呈的正相關；8.男選手的針對情緒與工作取向、自我取向、知覺工作氣候及自覺能力呈的正相關；女選手的針對情緒與知覺工作氣候及自覺能力呈正相關；9.男選手的逃避知覺自我氣候呈正相關達顯著水準。

（三）由逐步迴歸分析發現：1.男選手的自覺能力與知覺自我氣候可以有效預測認知焦慮強度；2.男選手的自覺能力與自我取向可以有效預測認知焦慮方向性；3.男選手的自覺能力與知覺自我氣候可以有效預測身體焦慮強度；4.男、女選手的自覺能力可以有效預測身體焦慮方向性；5.男選手的自覺能力與知覺工作氣候可以有效預測自信心強度；女選手的自覺能力、知覺自我氣候與知覺工作氣候可以有效預測自信心強度；6.男選手的自覺能力、知覺自我氣候與工作取向可以有效預測自信心方向性；女選手的自覺能力、知覺工作氣候可以有效預測自信心方向性；7.男選手的知覺工作氣候、自覺能力與工作取向可以有效預測針對問題的因應策略；女選手的知覺工作氣候與自覺能力可以有效預測選手的針對問題的因應策略；8.男選手的知覺工作氣候與工作取向可以有效預測針對情緒的因應策略；女選手的知覺工作氣候、自覺能力可以有效預測選手的針對情緒的因應策略；9.男選手的知覺自我氣候可以有效預測逃避的因應策略。

The Investigation of Goal Orientation, Perceived Motivational Climate, Perceived Ability, Competitive State Anxiety and
Coping Strategies Among Basketball Players

Abstract
The purpose of this study was three-fold. First, to examine the gender differences on goal orientation, perceived motivational climate, perceived ability, state anxiety, and coping strategies. Second, to examine the relationships between goal orientation, perceived motivational climate, perceived ability, state anxiety, and coping strategies. Third, to examine the predictive utility of goal orientation, perceived motivational climate, perceived ability on state anxiety and coping strategies. Two hundred and eighty-six (172 males and 114 females) high school basketball players who competed in the 2001 HBL Game were recruited as participants. Their average age was 16.74± 89 years. Participants were asked to complete TEOSQ, PMCSQ, MPS, Perceived Competence Inventory, and Coping Style Inventory for Athletes before the competition. Participants were also requested to fill out Pre-competitive State Anxiety Scale one hour before the competition. The results of this study indicated that: (1) The t-test analysis showed that male players scored higher on goal orientation, perceived motivational climate, perceived ability, cognitive anxiety, confidence, and “problem-focus” than female players. (2) The results of Pearson correlation analysis found that male players’ cognitive anxiety was negatively related to perceived ego-involved climate and was positively related to perceived ability. Male players’ somatic anxiety was positively related to task orientation and perceived ability. of Male players’ somatic anxiety was negatively related to perceived ability. Both male and female players’ direction of somatic anxiety were positively related to perceived ability. Male players’ self-confidence was positively related to task orientation, perceived task-climate, and perceived ability. On the other hand, female players’ self-confidence was positively related to perceived ego-involved climate and perceived ability. Male players’ task orientation, perceived task-involved climate and perceived ability were positively related to direction of self-confidence. On the other hand, female players’ perceived task-involved climate and perceived ability were positively related to direction of self-confidence. Male players’ task orientation, ego orientation, perceived task-involved climate, perceived ego-involved climate, and perceived ability were positively related to “problem-focus”. Male players’ task orientation, ego-orientation, and perceived ability were positively related to “emotion-focus”. Female players’ perceived task-involved climate and perceived ability were positively related to “emotion-focus”. Male players’ perceived ego-involved climate was positively related to “avoidance”. (3) The results of stepwise multiple regression analysis indicated that: Male players’ perceived ability and perceived ego-involved climate predicted intensity of cognitive anxiety. Male players’ direction of cognitive anxiety was predicted by perceived ability and ego orientation. Male players’ perceived ability and perceived ego-involved climate predicted somatic anxiety effectively. Both male and female players’ perceived ability predicted the direction of somatic anxiety effectively. Male players’ perceived ability and perceived task-involved climate predicted self-confidence effectively. On the other hand, female players’ perceived ability, perceived ego-involved climate and perceived task-involved climate could predict self-confidence effectively. Male players’ perceived ability, perceived self-climate and task orientation could predict the direction of self-confidence effectively. Female players’ direction of self-confidence was predicted by perceived ability and perceived task-involved climate. Male players’ perceived ability, perceived task-climate, and task orientation could predict the strategy of effectively. On the other hand, female players’ perceived ability and perceived task-involved climate could predict “problem-focus” coping strategy effectively. Male players’ emotion-focus coping strategy was predicted by task orientation and perceived task-involved climate. Female players’ emotion-focus coping strategy was predicted by perceived task-involved climate and perceived ability. Male players’ perceived ego-involved climate predicted avoidance coping strategy effectively.

目　錄

第壹章　緒　論----------------------------------- 1
第一節　研究背景------------------------------ 1
第二節　研究目的------------------------------ 7
第三節　研究問題------------------------------ 7
第四節　名詞解釋------------------------------ 7
第貳章　文獻探討--------------------------------- 11
第一節　成就目標取向理論---------------------- 11
第二節　成就目標取向與自覺能力的相關研究------ 17
第三節　競賽焦慮的理論與其相關研究------------ 20
第四節　壓力因應策的略理論與其相關研究-------- 25
第五節　研究假設------------------------------ 40
第參章　研究方法--------------------------------- 41
第一節　研究架構------------------------------ 41
第二節　研究對象------------------------------ 42
第三節　研究工具------------------------------ 44
第四節　實施程序------------------------------ 47
第五節　資料處理------------------------------ 48


第肆章　研究結果----------------------------------- 50
第一節　男、女選手在成就目標取向、知覺動機氣候、自覺能力、賽前狀態性焦慮、因應策略之差異------------------------------------ 50
第二節　成就目標取向、知覺動機氣候、自覺能力、賽前狀態性焦慮、因應策略的相關----------- 55
第三節　成就目標取向、知覺動機氣候、自覺能力、賽前狀態性焦慮、因應策略的預測--------- 59
第伍章　討論------------------------------------- 75
第一節　男、女籃球選手成就目標取向、知覺動機氣候、自覺能力、賽前狀態性焦慮、因應策略的差異-------------------------------- 75
第二節　成就目標、知覺動機氣候、自覺能力、賽前狀態性焦慮、因應策略的相關--------- 80
第三節　成就目標、知覺動機氣候、自覺能力、賽前狀態性焦慮、因應策略的預測--------- 88
第陸章　結論與建議------------------------------- 99
第一節　結論---------------------------------- 99
第二節　建議---------------------------------- 101
參考文獻----------------------------------------- 104
中文部分----------------------------------------------------- 104
英文部分----------------------------------------------------- 106
附錄---------------------------------------------------------------- 116
附錄一　運動成就目標取向量表------------------ 116
附錄二　知覺運動動機氣候量表------------------ 117
附錄三　運動自覺能力量表---------------------- 119
附錄四　壓力因應策略量表---------------------- 120
附錄五　賽前狀態性焦慮量表-------------------- 123

表 目 錄

表3-1 女子球隊基本資料------------------------- 42
表3-2 男子球隊基本資料------------------------- 43
表4-1 男、女籃球選手在各變項中的平均數及標準差- 51
表4-2 男、女籃球選手成就目標取向、知覺動機氣候、自覺能力與賽前狀態性焦慮、因應策略的相關摘要表------------------------------------- 55
表4-3 男選手的「認知焦慮強度」為效標變項之逐步迴歸分析摘要表----------------------------- 59
表4-4 男選手的「認知焦慮方向性」為效標變項之逐步迴歸分析摘要表--------------------------- 60
表4-5 男選手的「身體焦慮強度」為效標變項之逐步迴歸分析摘要表----------------------------- 61
表4-6 男選手的「身體焦慮方向性」為效標變項之逐步迴歸分析摘要表--------------------------- 62
表4-7 女選手的「身體焦慮方向性」為效標變項之逐步迴歸分析摘要表--------------------------- 63
表4-8 男選手的「自信心強度」為效標變項之逐步迴歸分析摘要表------------------------------- 64
表4-9 女選手的「自信心強度」為效標變項之逐步迴歸分析摘要表------------------------------- 65
表4-10 男選手的「自信心方向性」為效標變項之逐步迴歸分析摘要表----------------------------- 66
表4-11 女選手的「自信心方向性」為效標變項之逐步迴歸分析摘要表----------------------------- 67
表4-12 男選手的「針對問題」為效標變項之逐步迴歸分析摘要表--------------------------------- 68
表4-13 女選手的「針對問題」為效標變項之逐步迴歸分析摘要表--------------------------------- 69
表4-14 男選手的「針對情緒」為效標變項之逐步迴歸分析摘要表--------------------------------- 70
表4-15 女選手的「針對情緒」為效標變項之逐步迴歸分析摘要表--------------------------------- 71
表4-16 男選手的「逃避因應」為效標變項之逐步迴歸分析摘要表--------------------------------- 72
表4-17 男、女選手成就目標、知覺動機氣候、自覺能力對賽前狀態性焦慮與因應策略的預測摘要表--- 73


圖 目 錄

圖3-1　 研究架構圖------------------------------- 41

參考文獻
一、中文部分
毛國楠(民84)：國中教師的樂觀信念、自我效能、對壓力的認知評估、因應方式與工作調適及身心健康的關係。教育心理學報，28期，177-194頁。
季力康(民82)：運動目標取向量表-信度與效度分析。國立體育學院論叢。4卷1期，179-185頁。
季力康(民85)：運動員的壓力管理。國民體育季刊。25卷4期，頁51-57。
林秀慧(民84)：不同目標取向、自覺能力對平衡儀工作選擇、努力程度與樂趣之影響。國立體育學院體育研究所碩士論文。
林思妙(民82)：從認知評估、因應方式看國中教師的工作壓力因應歷程。國立台灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究碩士論文。
黃英哲(民83)：運動動機氣候、自覺能力、賽前狀態焦慮和滿足感的相關研究。國立台灣師範大學碩士論文。
黃英哲和季力康(民85)：合球運動員目標取向與自覺能力對賽前狀態焦慮的關係。臺北師院學報，9期，855-874頁。
黃清如(民89)：大專運動員的目標取向、自覺能力與認知評估對競賽壓力因應策略的影響。國立體育學院碩士論文。
盧俊宏(民81)：運動競賽特質性焦慮的概念與應用。國立體育學院論叢，2卷2期，89-102頁。
盧俊宏(民88)：完美主義、目標取向和自覺能力對運動競賽焦慮之預測研究。中華民國八十八年度大專院校體育學術研討會專刊，251-256頁。台北縣：輔仁大學。
盧素娥(民83)：不同目標取向與運動樂趣的相關研究。體育學報，18輯311-320頁。
蕭瑞國(民84)：國內體育科系男女學生之目標取向與運動樂趣之調查研究。中華民國大專院校八十四學年度體育學術研討會專刊，539-546頁。鳳山：陸軍官校。
蘇彙琇(民87)：社會支持、自我效能與國中學生壓力因應歷程中認知評估及因應策略的相關研究。國立臺灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究所碩士論文。


二、英文部分
Ames. C. (1984). Conceptions of motivation within competitive and noncompetitive goal structures. In R. Schwarzer (Ed.), Self-related cognitions in anxiety and motivation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261-271.
Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom: Students learning strategies and motivation processes. Journal of Educational Psychology, 80, 260-267.
Boyd, M. P., Callaghan, J., & Yin, Z. (1991). Ego-involvement and low competence in sport as a source of competitive trait anxiety. Paper presented at the anual meeting of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, Asilomar, CA.
Caruso, C. M., Dzewaltowski, D. A., Gill, D. L., & McElroy, M. A. (1990). Psychological and physiological change in competitive state anxiety during noncompetition and competitive success and failure. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 12, 6-20.
Carver, C. S., & Sheier, M. F. (1988). A control-process perspective on anxiety. Anxiety Research, 1, 17-22.
Chi, L. (1993). Prediction of achievement-related cognitions and behaviors in the physical domain: A test of the theory of goal perspective and self-efficacy. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN.
Chi, L., & Duda, J.L. (1995). Multi-sample confirmatory factor analysis of the task and ego orientation in sport questionnaire. Research Quarterly for Exerciseand Sport, 66, 91-98.
Daw, J. L. (1999). Goal involvements, goal orientation, and perceptions of parent- and coach-initiated motivational climates among youth sport participants. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign..
Duda, J. L. (1987). Toward a developmental theory of children's motivation in sport. Journal of Sport Psychology, 9, 130-145.
Duda, J. L. (1989). The relationship between task and ego orientation and the perceived purpose of sport among high school athletes. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11, 318-335.
Duda, J. L. (1992). Motivation in sport settings: A goal perspective approach. In G. C. Roberts (Ed.), Motivation in sport and exercise (pp.57-91). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Duda, J.L., & Chi, L. (1989). The effect of task-and ego-involving conditions on perceived competence and causal attributions in basketball. Paper presented at the meeting of the Association for the Advancement of Applied Sport Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle.
Duda, J. L., Chi, L., Newton, M., Walling, M. D., & Catley, D. (1995). Task and ego orientation and intrinsic motivation in sport. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 26, 40-63.
Duda, J. L., Newton, M., & Chi, L. (1990). The relationship of task and ego orientations and expectations on multidimensional state anxiety. Paper presented at the anaual meeting of the North American Society for the Psychology of Sport and Physical Activity, University of Houston, TX.
Duda, J. L., & Nicholls, J. G. (1992). Dimensions of achievement motivation in schoolwork and sport. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 290-299.
Duda, J. L. & White, S. A. (1992), Goal orientation and beliefs about the cause of sport success among elite skiers. The Sport Psychologist, 6, 334-343.
Duda, J. L., & Whitehead, J. (1998). Measurement of goal perspectives in the physical domain. In J. L. Duda (Ed.), Advances in sport and exercise psychology measurement (pp. 21-48). Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.
Dweck, C. S. (1986). Motivational processes affecting learning. American Psychologist, 41, 1040-1048.
Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95, 256-273.
Elliott, E.L., & Dweck, C.S. (1988). Goals: An approach to motivation and achievement. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 5-12.
Goudas, M., Biddle, S., & Fox, K. (1994). Achievement goal orientations and intrinsic motivation in physical fitness testing with children. Pediatric Exercise Science, 6, 159-167.
Gould, D., Petlichoff, L., Simons, H., & Vevera, M. (1987). The relationship between competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Subscale scores and Pistol shooting performance. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 9, 33-42.
Gould, D., Petlichoff, L., Weinberg, R. S. (1984). Antecedents of temporal changes in and relationships between CSAI-2 components. Journal of Sport Psychology, 6, 289-304.
Hall, H. K., & Kerr, A. W. (1997). Motivational antecedents of pre-competitive anxiety in youth sport. The Sport Psychologist, 11, 24-42.
Hall, H. K., Kerr, A. W., & Mathews, J. (1998). Precompetitive Anxiety in Sport: The contribution of achievement goals and perfectionism. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 20, 194-217.
Hardwood, C., Hardy, L., & Swain, A. (2000). Achievement goals in sport: A critique of conceptual and measurement issues. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 22, 235-255.
Harwood, C. G., & Swain, A. B. J. (1998). Antecedents of pre-competition achievement goals in elite junior tennis players. Journal of Sports Sciences, 16, 357-371.
Huang, Y., & Chi, L. (1999). The relationship of goal perspectives and perceived ability to multi-dimensional state anxiety in adolescent korfball players. Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress of Asian-South Pacific Association of Sport Psychology, Wuhan, China, 112-114..
Jones, G. (1991). Recent developments and current issues in competitive state anxiety research. The Sport Psychologist, 4, 152-155.
Jones, G. (1995). More than just a game: Research developments and issues in competitive anxiety in sport. British Journal of Psychology, 86, 449-478.
Jones, G., & Cale, A. (1989). Relationship between multidimensional competitive state anxiety and cognitive and motor subcomponents of performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 7, 229-240.
Jones, G., & Hanton, S. (1996). Interpretation of competitive anxiety symptoms and goal attainment expectancies. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 18, 144-157.
Jones, G., & Swain, G. (1992). Intensity and direction of competitive state anxiety and relationships with competitiveness. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 74, 467-472.
Jones, G., & Swain, G. (1995). Predispositions to experience facilitative and debilitative anxiety in elite and non-elite performers. The Sport Psychologist, 9, 201-211.
Jones, G., Swain, A., & Cale, A. (1990). Antecedents of multidimensional competitive state anxiety and self-confidence in elite intercollegiate middle-distance runners. The Sport Psychologist, 4, 107-118.
Jones, G., Swain, A., & Cale, A. (1991). Gender differences in precompetiton temporal patterning and antecedents of anxiety and self-confidence. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 13, 1-15.
Jones, G., Swain, A., & Hardy, L. (1993). Intensity and direction dimensions of competitive state anxiety and relationships with performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 11, 533-542.
Krane, V., & Williams, J. M. (1987). Performance and somatic anxiety, cognitive, and confidence changes prior to competition. Journal of Sport Behavior, 10, 47-56.
Lee, A., Carter, J., & Xiang, P. (1995). Children’s conceptions of ability in physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 14, 384-393.
Li, F., Harmer, C., Chi, L., & Vongjaturapat, N. (1996). Cross-cultural validation of the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 18, 392-407.
Lochbaum, M., & Roberts, G. C. (1993). Goal orientation and perceptions of the sport experience. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 15, 160-171.
Mahoney, M. J., & Avener, A. (1977). Psychology of the elite athlete: An exploratory study. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1, 135-141.
Martens, R., Burton, D., Rivkin, F., & Simon, J. (1980). Reliability and validity of the competitive state anxiety inventory (CSAI). In C. H. Dadeau, W. C. Halliwell, K. M. Newell, & G. C. Roberts (Eds.), Psychology of Motor Behavior and Sport – 1979. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Martens, R., & Gill, D. L. (1976). State anxiety among successful an unsuccessful competitors who differ in competitive trait anxiety. Research Quarterly, 47, 698-708.
Martens, R., Vealey, R. S., and Burton, D. (1990). Competitive anxiety in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Martin, J. J., & Gill, D. L. (1991). The relationship among competitive orietation, sport-confidence, self-efficacy, anxiety, and performance. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 13, 149-159.
Nicholls, J.G. (1984). Achievement motivation: Conceptions of ability, subjective experience, task choice, and performance. Psychological Review, 91, 328-346.
Nicholls, J.G. (1992). The competitive ethos and democratic education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Nicholls, J. G. (1992). The general and the specific in the development and expression of achievement motivation. In G. C. Roberts (Ed.), Motivation in sport and exercise. (pp. 31-56). Champaign, IL: Human kinetics.
Nicholls, J. G., & Miller, A. T. (1983). The differentiation of the concepts of difficulty and ability. Child Development, 54, 951-959.
Newton, M., & Duda, J. L. (1992). The relationship of goal perspectives to multidimensional trait anxiety in adolescent tennis players. Paper presented at the anaual meeting of the North American Society for the Psychilogy of Sport and Physical Activity, Pittsburgh, PA.
Newton, M. & Duda, J. L. (1995). Relations of goal orientations and expectations on multidimensional state anxiety. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 81, 1107-1112.
Newton, M., & Duda, J. L. (1999). The interaction of motivational climate, dispositional goal orientations, and perceived ability in predicting indices of motivation. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 30, 63-82.
Ntoumanis, N., & Biddle, S. (1998). The relationship between competitive anxiety, achievement goals, and motivational climates. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 69, 176-187.
Roberts, G. C. (1986). The perception of stress: A potential source and its development. In M. R. Weiss, & D. Gould (Eds.), Sport for children and youth (pp. 119-126). Chamoign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Roberts, G. C. (1992). Motivation in sport and exercise: Conceptual constraints and Convergence. In G. C. Roberts (Ed.), Motivation in sport and exercise (pp.3-29). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Roberts, G. C. Treasure, D. C., & Kavussanu, M. (1992). Motivation in physical activity contexts: An achievement goal perspective. In M. Maehr, & P. Pintrich, Advances in Motivation and Achievement (Vol. 10, pp. 413-447). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Seifriz, J.J., Duda, J.L., & Chi, L. (1992). The relationship of perceived motivational climate to intrinsic motivation and beliefs about success in basketball. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 14, 375-391.
Spielberger, C. D. (1966). Theory and research on anxiety. In C. D. Spielberger (Ed.), Anxiety and behavior (pp. 3-22). New York: Academic. Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Lushene, R. E. (1970). Manual for the state- trait anxiety inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
Swain, A., (1996). Social loafing and identifiability: The mediating role of achievement goal orientations. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 67, 337-344.
Swain, A. B. J., & Harwood, C. G. (1996). Antecedents of state goal in age-group swimmers: An interactionist perspective. Journal of Sports Sciences, 14, 111-124.
Swain, A., & Jones, G. (1996). Explaining performance variance: The relative contribution of intensity and direction dimensions of competitive state anxiety. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 9, 1-18.
Vealey, R. S., & Campell, J. L. (1988). Achievement goals of adolescent figure skaters: Impact on self-confidence, anxiety, and performance. Journal of Adolescence Research, 3, 227-243.
Walling, N.D., Duda, J.L., & Chi, L. (1993). The perceived motivational climate in sport questionnaire: Construct and predictive validity. Jounal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 15, 172-183.
Williams, L. (1994). Goal orientations and athlete’s preferences for competence information sources. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 15, 416-430.
Williams, L. (1998). Contextual influences and goal perspectives among female youth sport participants. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 69, 47-57.
Xiang, P., & Lee, A. (1998). The development of self-perception of ability and achievement goals and their relations in physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 69, 231-241.