臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

中文摘要
本研究旨在探討兒童及青少年死亡概念內涵與發展情形，及不同背景變項之兒童及青少年在死亡概念內涵與發展的差異性。
研究方法採繪圖、問卷調查及晤談法，研究對象取自國立高雄師範大學附屬中小學的國小兒童與國中青少年，計繪圖受試有小二至國三239人（年齡8-16歲）；問卷受試有小四至國三204人（年齡10-16歲）；晤談受試有小二至國三24人（年齡8-16歲），總計239人。其中繪圖指導語為研究者自編；「完成語句問卷」調查題目為研究者修訂鄭淑里（民84）所編擬之「語句完成測驗」；晤談內容則以半結構式題目為主。
資料分析方面，繪圖資料採現象圖之質性歸類，而問卷與晤談資料則以內容分析為主。此外，兼採統計之χ2考驗與χ2檢定事後比較對現象圖與問卷歸類資料予以量化分析。根據資料之質性與量化分析結果，歸納本研究結論如下：
一、小二兒童至國三青少年對死亡原因的了解多能從內在因素與外在因素加以考量，且小二以上的兒童及青少年已能充分瞭解死亡的普遍性。
二、國小兒童與國中青少年提及死後身體狀態不存在的比例約略相等(55%以上)，但年級較小的兒童大部分會相信靈魂存在的說法。
三、大部分的兒童及青少年面對死亡相關事件會產生悲傷、哀痛、失落等負向情緒，顯示死亡事件會伴隨著負面的情緒是必然的反應。
四、大部分的小二至小六兒童深信死後存有二元對立或一元世界，而國中青少年雖會展現較多對死後世界的想像，但不見得全然相信有死後世界的說法。
五、國中青少年呈現較多死亡本質與死亡評價的思考，國小兒童未呈現死亡本質的看法，對死亡的負面評價亦較多。
六、不同年級、家庭談論死亡情形樣本在死亡概念內涵與發展之比較，差異比較明顯。然而，不同性別、宗教信仰、死亡經驗樣本在死亡概念內涵與發展之比較，僅有部份略有差異。
七、僅有半數兒童及青少年提及父母親曾與自己談論死亡問題，其中小四與小六兒童比例更少，但父母親仍是兒童最想談論死亡問題的對象。然而青少年有尋求同儕討論死亡問題的傾向。
八、兒童及青少年印象最深刻的死亡事件以親人之死最高，其次為傳播媒體的社會案件或靈異事件之暴力死亡。
根據上述結論，本研究針對父母、教師及相關單位提出具體建議，並提供後續研究者未來研究可行的方向。

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the qualitative and quantitative differences in children and adolescents’ death concept development, and to analyze the relationships of children and adolescents’ death concept development with background variables (such as gender, age, religious belief, heath status, etc.)
The subjects were drawn from the primary school children and junior high school adolescents of the Affiliated Senior High School of National Kaohsiung Normal University. Data were drawing, questionnaire, and interview. 239 students (age 8-16) were asked to draw a picture when they heard the word death, 204 students (age 10-16) were administered by Fill-in-Sentence Questionnaire of Death, and 24 students (age 8-16) were interviewed individually. The total subject number was 239.
The drawings were analyzed following Marton’s (1988) phenomenographic method and assigned to the modified classification scheme of death concept system developed by Tamm & Granqvist (1995), consisting 3 superordinate and 12 subordinate qualitative categories. With respect to Fill-in sentence questionnaire and interview data, they were analyzed according to content analysis method, with Fill-in sentence questionnaire using the categorization proposed by Neimeyer(1983) and Holcomb & Neimeyer (1993) as a template.
Data analysis included qualitative and quantitative analysis. Qualitative analysis selectively portrayed drawing representative of each superordinate/subordinate death concept and presented result from the interview with children. Quantitative analysis included descriptive statistics ,χ2 test and post comparison ofχ2 test.
Analytically, the following were the results obtained from this study:
1.The internal causes and external causes of death were found with about equal frequency in both children and adolescents, with children above 2nd grade and adolescents all understanding the universality of death.
2.Children and adolescents expressing that dead bodies were not existential had approximately equal frequency (above 55%), but the majority of young children believed the existence of soul.
3.The majority of children and adolescents who actually faced real death usually expresses sadness and loss; it was natural response that death related things companied with negative emotion.
4.The majority of the 2nd to 6th children believed existence of world after death. However, many adolescents demonstrated more imagination about the world after death, although they didn’t believe in the existence after death.
5. Many adolescents reported thoughts about nature of death and evaluation of death. Alternatively, children didn’t report thoughts about nature of death, but they reported much negative evaluation of death.
6.There were significant differences in the death concept development with different grades and families communicating death. However, there were less significant differences in the death concept development with gender, religion, and death experience.
7.Only half children and adolescents reported that their parents ever talked about death with them, but parents were the targets that children wanted to talk to about death, while young adolescents has tendency to resort to their peers.
8.Children and adolescents reported the deepest impression of death concept was when family members died, while impressions of death from the mass communication media regarding violent death came in second.
According to the results of this study, recommendations regarding death education for parents, teachers, and institutions are laid out, and some suggestions for future research are also provided.

第一章 緒論
第一節 研究動機與研究目的
第二節 研究問題及假設
第三節 研究範圍與限制
第四節 名詞釋義
第二章 文獻探討
第一節 死亡意涵
第二節 死亡概念內涵
第三節 死亡概念發展研究之分析
第四節 影響兒童及青少年死亡概念發展之相關因素
第三章 研究方法與設計
第一節 研究架構
第二節 研究樣本
第三節 研究工具
第四節 實施與資料蒐集程序
第五節 資料分析
第四章 研究結果
第一節 樣本基本資料分析
第二節 現象圖分析
第三節 死亡概念完成語句問卷分析
第四節 晤談分析
第五章 綜合討論
第一節 兒童及青少年之死亡概念內涵與發展
第二節 不同背景兒童及青少年之死亡概念內涵與發展
第三節 兒童及青少年對死亡相關事件之想法
第六章 結論與建議
第一節 主要發現
第二節 結論
第三節 建議
參考書目
中文書目
英文書目
附錄
附錄一 繪圖指引
附錄二 死亡概念完成語句調查研究預試問卷
附錄三 死亡概念完成語句調查研究正式問卷
附錄四 晤談指引
附錄五 晤談資料摘要表

一、中文書目
王邦雄（民83）。生死道。台北市：漢藝色研文化。
丘愛鈴（民78）。台北市國中教師對死亡及死亡教育態度之研究。國立台灣師範大學教育研究所碩士論文。
巫珍宜（民80）。青少年死亡態度之研究。國立彰化師範大學輔導研究所碩士論文。
沈秋桂譯（民74）。末期病人的身心護理。台北市：光啟出版社。
李復惠（民76）。某大學學生對死亡及瀕死態度之研究。國立台灣師範大學衛生教育研究所碩士論文。
李開敏、林方皓、張玉仕、葛書倫譯（民84）。悲傷輔導與悲傷治療。台北市：心理出版社。
吳庶深（民77）。對臨終病人及家屬提供專業善終服務之探討。東海大學社會工作研究所碩士論文。
吳和堂（民86）。海德格的死亡觀對死亡教育的蘊涵。教育學刊，13期，頁263-280。
林烝增（民86）。兒童對死亡的認知與情緒之研究：兒童死亡世界的話與畫。中國文化大學兒童福利研究所碩士論文。
段德智（民83）。死亡哲學。台北市：洪葉。
范瓊方（民85）。幼兒繪畫的教育功能。美育，77期，頁37-44。
陳秋娟（民87）。國小中、高年級學童死亡概念、死亡態度及死亡教育需求之研究。國立嘉義師範學院國民教育研究所碩士論文。
程安宜（民87）。從「老莊生死觀」探討兒童的死亡教育。國立屏東師範學院國民教育研究所碩士論文。
張春興（民78）。張氏心理學辭典。台北市：東華書局。
張春興（民80）。現代心理學。台北市：東華書局。
張淑美（民78）。兒童死亡概念發展之研究與其教育應用。國立高雄師範大學教育研究所碩士論文。
張淑美（民82）。國中生死亡概念與死亡態度之研究：質的分析。國立高雄師大學報，4期，141-93。
張淑美（民85）。死亡學與死亡教育：國中生之死亡概念、死亡態度、死亡教育態度及其相關因素之研究（初版）。高雄市：復文書局。
黃國彥（民75）。老人健康自評生活改變及生命意義與其生活滿意和死亡焦慮之關係。國科會（計畫編號：NSC74-0301-H004-03）。
黃琪璘（民80）。台北市綜合醫院醫師對死亡及瀕死態度之研究。國立台灣師範大學衛生教育研究所碩士論文。
傅偉勳（民83）。學問的生命與生命的學問。台北市：正中書局。
馮觀富（民83）。壓力、失落的危機處理。台北市：心理出版社。
蔡秀錦（民80）。城鄉學童死亡之概念、焦慮度及教育需求之研究。國立台灣師範大學衛生教育研究所碩士論文。
劉惠美（民78）。兒童死亡概念之研究。國立台灣師範大學家政研究所碩士論文。
劉震鐘、鄧博仁譯（民85）。死亡心理學。台北市：五南出版社。
鍾思嘉（民75）。老人死亡態度之調查研究。國科會補助研究論文。
鍾春櫻（民81）。死亡教育對護專學生死亡態度之影響。國立彰化師範大學輔導研究所碩士論文。
鄭淑里（民84）。死亡教育課程對師院生死亡態度的影響。國立台灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究所碩士論文。
鄭曉江（民83）。中國死亡智慧。台北市：東大圖書公司。

二、英文書目
Anthony, S. (1940). The child’s discovery of death. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Anthony, S. (1972). The discovery of death in childhood and after. N. Y.: Basic Books.
Beauchamp, N. W. (1974). The young child’s perceptions of death. Dissertation Abstracts International, 35, 3288A-3289A.
Binks, L. T. (1982). Impact of cystic, fibrosis on children’s emotions, behavior and concept of death as seen by parents. Dissertation Abstracts International, 43, 05-B.
Bluebond-Langner, M. (1989). Worlds of dying children and their well siblings. Death Studies, 13, 1-16.
Bolduc, J. A. (1972). A development study of the relationship between experiences of death and age development of the concept of death. Dissertation Abstracts International, 34(6-A), 2758A.
Bowlby, J. (1980). Attachment and loss: Loss, sadness, and depression. N. Y.: Basic Books.
Braun, K. L., & Nichols, R. (1997). Death and dying in four Asian American cultures: A descriptive study. Death Studies, 21, 327-359.
Brent, S. B. (1977-1978). Puns, metaphors, and misunderstandings in a two-year- old’s concept of death. Omega: Journal of Death and Dying, 8, 285-294.
Brent, S. B., & Speece, M. W. (1993). "Adult" conceptualization of irreversibility: Implications for the development of the concept of death. Death Studies, 17, 203-224.
Childers, P., & Wimmer, M. (1971). The concept of the death in early childhood. Child Development, 42, 1299-1301.
Excell, J. A. (1991). A child's perception of death. In D. Papadatou & C. Papadtou (Eds.), Children and death. (pp. 87-104). N. Y.: Hemisphere Publishing Corporation.
Florian, V., & Kpavetz, S. (1985). Children's concept of death: A cross-cultural comparison among Muslims, Druze, Christians and Jewish in Israel. Journal of Cross- cultural Psychology, 16(2), 174-189.
Fredlund, D. (1977). Children and death from school setting viewpoint. Journal of School Health, 11, 533-537.
Gartley, W., & Bernasconi, M. (1967). The concept of the death in children. The Journal of Genetic Pyschology, 110, 71-105.
Grollman, E. A. (1977). Explaining death to children. Journal of School Healthy, 11, 336-339.
Guy, T. (1993). Exploratory study of elementary-aged children’s conceptions of death through the use of story. Death Studies, 17, 27-54.
Hasselgren, B., & Beach, D. (1997). Phenomenography: A "good-for-nothing brother" of Phenomenology? Outline of an analysis. Higher Education Research & Development, 16(2), 191-202.
Hargrove, E. L. (1979). An exploratory study of children's ideas about death, with a view toward developing an exploratory model. Dissertation Abstracts International, 40, 1688A-1689A.
Holcomb, L. E., Neimeyer, R. A., & Moore, M. K. (1993). Personal meanings of death: A content analysis of free-response narratives. Death Studies, 17, 299-318.
Hoffman, S. I., & Strauss, S. (1985). The development of children’s concepts of death. Death Studies, 9, 469-482.
Hug-Hellmuth, H. Von. (1965). The child's concept of death. The Psychoanalytical Quarterly, 34, 499-516.
Jenkins, R. A., & Cavanaugh, J. C. (1986). Examining the relationship between the development of the concept of death and overall cognitive development. Omega: Journal of Death and Dying, 16(3), 193-199.
Jick, T. D. (1983). Mixing qualitative and quantitative method: Triangulation in action. In J. Van Manen (Ed.), Qualitative methodology (pp. 135-148). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Kane, B. (1977). A Piagetian discussion of the development of children's concepts of death (ERIC ED 142 857).
Kane, B. (1979). Children's concept of death. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 134, 141-153.
Kaplan, C. C., & Joslin, H. (1993). Accidental sibling death. In N. B. Webb (Ed.), Helping bereaved children: A handbook for practition (pp. 118-136). N. Y.: Guilford.
Kastenbaum, R., & Aisenberg, R. (1972). The psychology of death. N. Y.: Springer.
Kastenbaum, R., & Costa, P. T. (1977). Psychological perspectives on death. Annual Review of Psychology, 28, 225-249.
Kearney, R. (1986). Modern movement in European philosophy. Taipei: Simda.
Koocher, G. P. (1973). Childhood, death, and cognitive development. Developmental Psychology, 9(3), 369-375.
Lamers, E. P. (1995). Children, dead, and faity tales. Omega : Journal of Death and Dying 31(2), 151-167.
Lazar, A., & Torney-Purta, J. (1991). The development of subconcepts of death in young children: A short-term longitudinal. Children Development, 62(6), 1321-1333.
Lee, W. J. (1987). Children’s concepts of death: A study on age and gender as factors in concept development. Dissertation Abstracts International, 7, 2119.
Lonetto, R. (1980). Children's concepts of death. N. Y. : Springer.
Mahon, M. M., Goldberg, E. Z., & Washington, S. K. (1999). Concept of death in a sample of Israeli Kibbutz children. Death Studies, 23, 43-59.
Marton, F. (1988). Phenomenography: Exploring different conceptions of reality. In D. Fetterman (Ed.), Qualitative approaches to evaluation in education: The silent scientific revolution. N. Y. : Praeger.
Matter, D. E., & Matter, R. M. (1982). Developmental sequences in children’s understanding of death with implications for counselors. Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 17(2), 112-118.
Maurer, A. (1966). Maturation of concepts of death. British Journal of Medicine and Psychology, 39, 35-41.
McIntire, M. S., Angle, C. R., & Struempler, L. J. (1972). The concept of death in Midwestern children and youth. American Journal of Diseases of Children, 123, 527- 532.
Moody, R. A., & Moody, C. P. (1991). A family perspective: Helping children acknowledge and express grief following the death of a parent. Death Studies, 15, 587- 602.
Nagy, M. (1948). The child's theories concerning death. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 73, 3-27.
Neimeyer, R. A., Fontana, D. J., & Gold, K. (1983). A manual for content analysis of death constructs. Death Education, 7(2-3), 299-320.
Neimeyer, R. A. (1991). Death Studies: A prospective view. Death Studies, 15, iii- vi.
Neimeyer, R. A. (Ed.)(1994). Death anxiety handbook: Research, instrumentation, and application. W. H.: Taylor & Francis.
Normand, C. L., & Mishara, B. L. (1992). The development of the concept of suicide in children. Omega: Journal of Death and Dying, 25(3), 183-203.
Orbach, I., & Glauman, H. (1978). Suicidial, aggressive, and normal children’s perception of personal and impersonal death. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 34, 850- 857.
Orbach, I., Gross, Y., Glaubman, H., & Berman, D. (1985). Children's perception of death in humans and animals as a function of age, anxiety and cognitive ability. Journal of Children’s Psychology and Psychiatry, 26(3), 453-463.
Orbach, I., Weiner, M., Har-Even, D., & Eshel, Y. (1994-1995). Children's perception of death and interpersonal closeness to the dead person. Omega: Journal of Death and Dying, 30(1), 1-12.
Piaget, J. (1970). Genetic epistemology. N. Y.: Columbia University Press.
Prichard, S., & Epting, F. (1992). Children and death: New horizons in theory and measurement. Omega: Journal of Death and Dying, 24(4), 271-288.
Raphael, B. (1984). The anatomy of bereavement. London: Hutchinson.
Safier, G. (1964). A study of the relationship between life and death concepts in children. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 105, 283-294.
Schilder, P., & Wechsler, D. (1934). The attitudes of children toward death. The Pedagogical Seminary, 44/45, 406-451.
Sonneman, U. (1954). Existence and therapy: An introduction to phenomenologi- cal psychology and existential analysis. N. Y.: Grune and Stratton.
Speece, M. W., & Brent, S. B. (1984). Children's understanding of death: A review of three components of a death concept. Child Development, 55(5), 1671-1686.
Speece, M. W., & Brent, S. B. (1992). The acquisition of a meaning understanding of three components of the concept of death. Death Studies, 16, 211-229.
Stambrook, M., & Parker, K. C. H. (1987). The development of the concept of death in childhood: A review of the literature. Merrillpalmer Quarterly, 33(2), 133-157.
Swain, H. L. (1976). The concept of death in children. Dissertation Abstracts International, 37, 898A-899A.
Swain, H. L. (1979). Childhood views of death. Death Education, 2, 341-358.
Tamm, M. E., & Granqvist, A. (1993). Barns dödsuppfattning i teckningar och berättelser [Children’s conceptions of death in drawings and narratives]. Research Report 25. Boden: College of Health and Caring Sciences.
Tamm, M. E., & Granqvist, A. (1995). The meaning of death for children and adolescents: A phenomenographic study of drawings. Death Studies, 19, 203-222.
Tallmer, M., Formanek, R., & Tallmer, J. (1974). Factors influencing children's concepts of death. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 3, 17-19.
Wainwright, A. (1987). Australian children's thinking about death: A Sydney- based study (ERIC ED 294 657).
Wass, H. (1991). Helping children cope with death. In D. Papadatou & C. Papadatou (Eds.), Children and death (pp.11-32). N. Y.: Hemisphere Publishing Corp.
Wass, H. (1995). Death in the lives of children and adolescents. In H. Wass & R. Neimeyer (Eds.), Dying-facing the facts (pp. 269-301). Bristol: Taylor & Francis Publishers.
Wass, H., & Shaak, J. (1976). Helping children understanding death through literature. Childhood Education, 138, 159-174.
Wass, H., Corr, C. A., Pacholski, R. A., & Forfar, C. S. (1984). Research and assessment of attitudes toward death. In H. Wass, C. A. Corr, R. A. Pacholski, & C. S. Forfar (Eds.), Death education II: An annotated resource guide (pp. 187-250). U. S.: Hemisphere.
Webb, N. B. (1993). The child and death. In N. B. Webb (Ed.), Helping bereaved children (pp. 3-18). N. Y.: Guilford.
Weiniger, O. (1979). Young children's concepts of dying and dead. Psychological Reports, 44, 395-407.
Wenestam, C. G. (1982). Children's reactions to the word death (ERIC ED 219 704).
Wenestam, C. G. (1984). Qualitative age-related difference in the meaning of the word 'death" to children. Death Education, 8, 333-347.
Wenestam, C. G., & Wass, H. (1987). Swedish and U.S. children's thinking about death: A qualitative study and cross-culture comparison. Death Studies, 11, 99-121.
White, E. A., Elsom, B., & Prawat, R. (1978). Children’s concepts of death. Child Development, 49, 307-310.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. In C. Michael (Ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard UP.