臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

心理學家長期以來對於認知功能的停頓相當感興趣，因為停頓現象所反映出語言構思與語言產生的關係正是了解停頓功能的重要基石。從認知的觀點來看，說話者預先構思他們下面要說的話，將思想轉化為形成語言前的訊息，再轉譯為語言形式。停頓的功能和實際語言的功能同樣重要。本研究的目的旨在探討語言產生時停頓現象和語言化認知過程間的關係。
本研究主要探討口語敘事言談中的停頓現象。研究結果顯示，敘事者使用不同的停頓標記來解決語言產生即時的構思問題。爭取時間最直接的方式即是使用靜默停頓來為後面要說的話做準備。而有一些連接詞和口語填補詞也漸漸發展為停頓標記，滿足停頓的功能。填補停頓和音節延長時常相伴發生，一方面表示語言產生時遭遇的困難，一方面顯現佔據發言權的溝通意圖。本研究並探討各種不同的停頓現象和句法結構的關係，以及和詞彙指涉的訊息特徵之間的關係。
本研究顯示，靜默停頓的長度與其後構思的語言結構複雜度（即單位大小）兩者之間沒有顯著關連性。一般而言，在靜默停頓和填補停頓之後通常伴隨著子句大小的語言單位，而音節延長之後多為片語或詞彙。停頓標記的使用大致受到其後語言單位的影響區分為三類：「然後」和「那」等連接詞停頓標記標示較大單位的構思困難（子句和複雜句），「就」和「就是」標示片語的構思困難（通常是動詞片語），而指示詞停頓標記「那個」和「這個」則標示名詞或名詞片語的搜尋困難。
本研究也觸及停頓現象與訊息結構的議題。現有的語料分析結果顯示停頓與其後名詞指涉的訊息新舊狀態有密切關係：產生新的訊息會伴隨較多的停頓或遲疑，且有功能分化的趨勢。音節延長經常標示新的訊息，尤其是出現在存在句式的Ｓ論元﹔而停頓標記大部分是用來標記舊的訊息，不因論元的不同而有所差異。

The present study aims to investigate how pausing patterns reflect thought and speech. This is done through an examination of the location, function, and frequency of various types of pause. The pausing phenomenon examined consist of the following types: (1) silent pauses (unfilled pauses or prosodic breaks), (2) filled pauses like uh and um and lengthening, (3) pause markers emerging from demonstratives like nage ''that'' and zhege ''this'', a temporal adverb jiu, copular jiushi ''(that) is'' and connective words like rahou ''then'' and na ''and''. Specifically, our research questions are as follows: first, how are the various types of pauses distributed in spoken narrative? Second, how are these pausing patterns related to grammatical structure and information flow properties? Finally, how can the relationship between pauses and linguistic units be accounted for in terms of cognitive processes underlying language production? These questions will be answered in the course of this study.
The pause patterns are examined in natural speech, where thinking is embodied via mental grammar. Therefore, a further objective of this study has been to develop an understanding of the way that speakers encode thought into speech. While pause duration has previously been considered to primarily depend on the syntactic structure, it is suggested here that the syntactic structure play a relatively insignificant role in pause production in spoken narratives, and that information flow properties such as activation status of nominal referents appear to figure significantly in understanding pause behaviors in language production.
This study is also intended to deepen our understanding of the process of language production in general, and the development of pause markers in particular. The present study is different from earlier studies on pause in at least two respects. Most of the earlier studies suffer from focusing on a single dimension of pause phenomena, rather than on the combination of different types of pauses. Since pauses of different types can be shown to frequently co-occur, an improved understanding of the relationship between pause and production units has been attained in this study through an in-depth analysis of the various types of pause. Furthermore, previous studies on pause have been based on reading data or written discourse production. In contrast, this study is based on on-line spoken narrative.

Acknowledgements i
Chinese Abstract iv
Abstract v
Table of Contents vi
Transcription Conventions ix
List of Abbreviations ii
List of Tables iii
List of Figures iv
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Objectives 2
1.2 Previous Studies 3
1.2.1 Cut-off Value of Hesitation Pause 4
1.2.2 Encoding Units 5
1.2.3 Pause Duration and Distribution 7
1.2.4 Cognitive Rhythms in Monologue 9
1.3 Theoretical Background 11
1.4 Data and Methodology 13
1.4.1 Database 13
1.4.2 Transcription 13
1.4.3 Measurement 15
1.4.4 Coding of Analysis 16
1.5 Organization 23
Notes for Chapter 1 24
Chapter 2 Silent Pauses and Cognitive Processes 26
2.1 Distribution of Silent Pauses 26
2.2 Locations of Silent Pauses 27
2.2.1 Pausing for Words 30
2.2.2 Pausing for Phrases 34
2.2.3 Pausing for Clauses and Clause-complexes 37
2.3 Silent Pauses and Structural Units 40
2.4. Pause in Phrasal Categories 44
2.5 Pause and Word Classes 48
2.6 Summary 50
Notes for Chapter 2 51
Chapter 3 Filled Pauses and Lengthening 52
3.1 Location of Filled Pauses 53
3.2 Filled Pauses and Grammatical Encoding Units 57
3.3 Co-occurrence of Filled Pauses and Silent Pauses 62
3.4 Lengthening as Hesitation Device 65
3.4.1 Lengthened Words: Lag Locus 66
3.4.2 Lengthening and Structural Units 77
3.5 Summary 79
Notes for Chapter 3 81
Chapter 4 Emergence of Pause Markers in Chinese 82
4.1 Why Pause Markers? 82
4.2 Chinese Pause Markers 83
4.1.1 Connectives ranhou ''then'' and na ''and'' 84
4.2.2 Temporal Adverb jiu 86
4.2.3 Verbal Filler jiushi/jiusho 88
4.2.4 Zhege ''this'' and Nage ''that'' 89
4.3 Pause Markers and Syntactic Structure 92
4.4 Inconsistency between Pause Markers and Structural Units 95
4.4.1 Clause-complex/clause Signaled by Non-connective Pause Markers 95
4.4.2 Miscellaneous Category of Problem Phrases 104
4.4.3 Difficult Words 109
4.5 Summary 112
Notes for Chapter 4 114
Chapter 5 Pauses and Information Flow 122
5.1 Information Patterning in spoken Chinese 122
5.2 Information Flow Properties of Problem Nominal Referents 124
5.2.1 A Arguments 126
5.2.2 S Arguments 128
5.2.3 O Argument 131
5.2.4 Oblique Arguments 133
5.2.5 Others 135
5.3 Codability and Lexical Choice 137
5.4 Information Status Signaled by Different Pausing Devices 145
5.5 Summary 147
Notes for Chapter 5 149
Chapter 6 Conclusion 152
References 156

Alpert, M., A. Clark, and E. R. Pouget. 1994. The syntactic role of pauses in the speech of Schizophrenic patients with Alogia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 103. 4, 750-757.
Barik, Henri C. 1968. On defining juncture pauses: A note on Boomer''s "hesitation and grammatical encoding". Language and Speech 11. 156-159.
Bean, Martha S. and Patthey-Chavez. 1994. Repetition in instructional discourse: A means for joint cognition. Repetition in discourse interdisciplinary perspectives, ed. by Barbara Johnstone. Norwood, N.Y: Ablex.
Beattie, G. 1980. The role of language production processes in the organization of behavior in face-to-face interaction. Language Production, ed. by Butterworth, B. 69-107. New York: Academic Press.
Beattie, G.W. 1983. Talk: an analysis of speech and non-verbal behavior in conversation. Milton Keyes: Open University Press.
Biq, Yung-O. 1994. Conversational interactionality and language use. Paper presented at Fourth Symposium on Chinese Language Teaching. Taipei. 227-236.
Blackmer, Elizabeth R. and Janet L. Mitton. 1991. Theories of monitoring and the timing of repairs in spontaneous speech. Cognition 39. 173-194.
Bock, K and W. Levelt. 1994. Language production: grammatical encoding. Handbook of psycholinguistics, edited by Morton Ann Gernsbacher. San Diego: Academic Press.
Boomer, D.S. and Allen T. Dittmann. 1962. Hesitation pauses and juncture pauses in speech. Language and Speech 5. 215-220.
Boomer, D. S. 1965. Hesitation and grammatical encoding. Language and Speech 8. 148-158.
Brennan, Susan E. and Maurice Williams. 1995. The feeling of another''s knowing: Prosody and filled pauses as cues to listeners about the metacognitive states of speakers. Journal of memory and language 34. 383-398.
Brubake, R.S. 1972. Rate and pause characteristics of oral reading. Journal of psycholinguistic research, Vol. 1, No. 2. 141-147.
Butcher, A. 1975. Some Syntactic and Physiological Aspects of Pausing. Institue fu_r Phonetick, Universita_t Kiel Arbeitsberichte 5. 170-194.
Butcher, A. 1981. Aspects of the speech pause: Phonetic correlates and communicative functions. Institut fu_r Phonetik, Universita_t Kiel, Arbeitsberichte Nr. 15.
Butterworth, B. 1975. Hesitation and semantic planning in speech. Journal of psycholinguistic research, Vol. 4, No. 1. 75-87.
Butterworth, B. 1980. Language Production. Vol. 1. Speech and Talk. London: Academic Press.
Chafe, Wallace. 1980. The deployment of consciousness in the production of a narrative. The Pear Story: Cognitive, Cultural, and Linguistic Aspects of Narrative Production. 9-50. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex.
Chafe, Wallace. 1987. Cognitive constraints on information flow. Coherence and grounding in discourse, ed. By Russell S. Tomlin. 21-51. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Chafe, Wallace. 1993. Prosodic and functional units of language. Talking data, ed. by J. A. Edwards & M. D. Lampert. Hillsdale, NJ: L. Erlbaum.
Chafe, Wallace. 1994. Discourse, consciousness and time: The flow and displacement of conscious experience in speaking and writing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Christenfeld, N., Schachter, S., and Bilous, F. 1991. Filled pauses and gestures: it''s not coincidence. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 20. 1, 1-11.
Chui, Kawai. 1994. Information flow in Mandarin Chinese discourse. Ph.D. Dissertation. National Taiwan Normal University.
Chui, Kawai. 1997. Grounding in Chinese conversation. Proceedings of the first symposium on discourse and syntax in Chinese and Formosan languages. June 14-15. Taipei: National Taiwan University.
Clark, Herbert H. 1994. Discourse in production. Handbook of psycholinguistics, edited by Morton Ann Gernsbacher. San Diego: Academic Press.
Clark, Herbert H. 1994. Managing problems in speaking. Speech communication 15. 243-250.
Cook, Mark. 1971. The incidence of filled pauses in relation to part of speech. Language and Speech 14. 135-139.
Croft, William. 1995. Intonation units and grammatical structure. Linguistics 33. 839-882.
Crown, Cynthia L. and Stanley Feldstein. 1991. The perception of speech rate from the sound-silence pattern of monologues. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 20. 1, 27-63.
Downing, Pamela. 1980. Factors influencing lexical choice in narrative. The Pear Story: Cognitive, Cultural, and Linguistic Aspects of Narrative Production. 89-126. Norwood, N.J.: Ablex.
Crystal, D. 1975. The English tone of voice. London: St. Martin.
Deese, J. 1980. Pauses, prosody and the demands of production in language. Temporal variables in speech: Studies in honor of Frieda Goldman-Eisler. The Hague: Mouton.
Du Bois. J. W. 1987. The discourse basis of ergativity. Language 63. 805-855.
Du Bois. J. W. 1991. Transcription design principles for spoken language research. Pragmatics 1. 71-106.
Du Bois J. W. et al. 1993. Outline of discourse transcription. Talking data: transcription and coding in discourse research, ed. by Jane Edwards, and Martin D. Lampert.
Duez, D. 1982. Silent and non-silent pauses in thre speech styles. Language and Speech 25. 1, 11-28.
Duez, D. 1985. Perception of silent pauses in continuous speech. Language and Speech 28. 4, 377-389.
Duez, D. 1993. Acoustic correlates of subjective pauses. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 22. 1, 21-39.
Duez, D. 1997. Acoustic markers of political power. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 26. 641-654.
Ehrlich, Susan. 1994. Repetition and point of view in represented speech and thought. Repetition in discourse interdisciplinary perspectives, ed. by Barbara Johnstone. Norwood, N.Y.: Ablex.
Erbaugh, Mary S. 1987. Psycholinguistic evidence for foregrounding and backgrounding. Coherence and grounding in discourse, ed. by Tomlin, R. S. 109-130. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Esser, U. 1977. Untersuchungen zum Pausenverhalten in der spontanen und experimentell-provozierten Sprachproduktion. Dissertation, University of Leipzip.
Ford, Marilyn and V.M. Holmes. 1978. Planning units and syntax in sentence production. Cognition 6. 35-53.
Fox, B. A. and R. Jasperson. 1995. A syntactic exploration of repair in English conversation. Alternative Linguistics: Descriptive and theoretical modes. John Benjamins.
Fox Tree, Jean E. 1995. The effects of false starts and repetitions on the processing of subsequent words in spontaneous speech. Journal of Memory and Language 34. 709-738.
Fox Tree, Jean E. & Herbert H. Clark. 1997. Pronouncing "the" as "thee" to signal problems in speaking. Cognition 62. 151-167.
Garman, M. 1992. Psycholinguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Garrett, M. F. 1976. Syntactic processing in sentence production. New approaches to language mechanisms, ed. by Walker, E. North-Holland.
Garrett, M. F. 1982. Production of Speech: Observations from normal and pathological language use. Normality and pathology and cognitive functions, ed. by Walker, E. London: Academic Press.
Gee, J.P. 1986. Units in the production of narrative discourse. Discourse Processing 9. 391-422.
Givon, Talmy. 1990. Syntax: A functional-typological introduction. Vol. II. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Goldman-Eisler, F. 1958. Speech production and the predictability of words in context. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 10. 96-105.
Goldman-Eisler, F. 1967. Sequential temporal patterns and cognitive processes in speech. Language and Speech 10. 122-132.
Goldman-Eisler F. 1968. Psycholinguistics: experiments in spontaneous speech. New York: Academic Press.
Goldman-Eisler, F. 1972. Pauses, clauses, sentences. Language and Speech 15. 103-113.
Grosjean, F. and H. Lane. 1977. Pause and syntax in American Sign Language. Cognition 5. 101-117.
Grosjean, F, Grosjean, L. and Lane, H. 1979. The patterns of silence: performance structures in sentence production. Cognitive Psychology 11. 58-81.
Halliday, M. A. K. 1967. Notes on transitivity and theme in English. Part 2. Journal of Linguistics 3. 199-244.
Harley, Trevor A. 1996. The psychology of language: From data to theory. Psychology Press.
Henderson, A., Goldman-Eisler, F., and Skarbek, A. 1965. Temporal patterns of cognitive activity and breath control in speech. Language and Speech 8. 236-242.
Henderson, et al. 1966. Sequential temporal patterns in spontaneous speech. Language and Speech 9. 207-216.
Hieke, A.E., S. Kowal, and D.C. O''Connell. 1983. The trouble with ''articulatory'' pauses. Language and Speech 26. 203-214.
Huang, Shuanfan. 1993. Pause as a window on the mind and the grammar -- evidence from spoken Chinese discourse. Paper presented at the Workshop on Interfaces and the Chinese Language, June 30- August 6, 1993, Ohio State University.
Huang, Shuanfan. 1996. The emergence of a grammatical category "definite article" in spoken Chinese. To appear in Journal of Pragmatics.
Kess, Joseph F. 1992. Psycholinguistics: psychology, linguistics, and the study of natural language. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Kowal, S, D.C. O''Connell, and E.J. Sabin. 1975. Development of temporal patterning and vocal hesitations in spontaneous narratives. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 4. 195-207.
Kroll, B. 1977. Combining ideas in written and spoken English: a look at subordination and coordination. Discourse across time and space. Southern California Occasional Papers in Linguistics 5. Department of Linguistics. University of Southern California. Los Angeles.
Lallgee M.G. and M. Cook. 1969. An experimental investigation of the function of filled pauses in speech. Language and Speech 12. 24-28.
Levelt, W. J. M. 1983. Monitoring and self-repari in speech. Cognition 14. 41-104.
Levelt, W. J. M. 1989. Speaking: From intention to articulation. MIT Press.
Levin, H. and I. Silverman. 1965. Hesitation phenomena in children''s speech. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 8. 67-85.
Levin, H., Silverman, I., and Ford, B. L. 1967. Hesitations in children''s speech during explanation and description. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal behavior 6. 560-564.
Li, Charles N. and Sandra A. Thompson. 1982. The gulf between spoken and written language: A case study in Chinese. Spoken and written language: Exploring orality and literacy, ed. by D. Tannen. 77-88. Norwood, N.J.:Ablex.
Lindsay, J and D. C. O''Connell. How do transcribers deal with audio recordings of spoken discouse? Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 24. 2, 101-115.
Lindsley, J. R. 1975. Producing simple utterances: How far ahead do we plan? Cognitive psychology 7. 1-19.
Lendsley, J. R. 1976. Producing simple utterances: Details of the planning process. Journal of Psycholinguistics 5. 4, 331-354.
Liu, Hsiu-min. 1997. Verbal fillers as pause markers in spoken Chinese narrative. Paper presented at the Ninth North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics. May 2-4. Canada: University of Victoria.
Liu, Laura Hsiu-min, 1997. From image to speech: pause in narration process. Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on Cognitive Processing of Asian Languages and Symposium on Brain, Cognition and Communication, Dec. 1-4. Japan: Nagoya University.
Lounsbury, F. G. 1954. Transitional probability, linguistic structure, and systems of habit-family hierarchies. Psycholinguistics: a survey of theory and research problems, ed. by Osgood, C. E. and T. Sebeok. Bloomington: Indiana University Press
Maclay, H. and C. E. Osgood. 1959. Hesitation phenomena in spontaneous English speech. Word 15. 19-44.
Martin, J. G. 1967. Hesitation in the speaker'' production and listener''s reproduction of utterances. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 6. 903-909.
Martin, J. G. 1970. On judging pauses in spontaneous speech. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 9. 75-78.
McNeill, D. 1992. Hand and mind: what gestures reveal about thought. The University of Chicago Press.
Meyer, A. S. 1996. Lexical access in phrase and sentence production: results from picture-word interference experiments. Journal of Memory and Language 35. 477-496.
Miura, Ichira. 1993. Switching pauses in adult-adult and child-child turn takings: An initial study. Journal of psycholinguistic Research 22. 383-395.
Ono, Tsuyoshi and S. A. Thompson. 1995. What can conversation tell us about syntax? Alternative linguistics: Descriptive and theoretical modes, ed. by P. W. Davis. John Benjamins.
Rieber, R.W., S. Breskin, and J. Jaffe. 1972. Pause time and phonation time in stuttering and cluttering. Journal of Psycholinguitic Research 1. 149-153.
Rochester, S. R. 1973. The significance of pauses in spontaneous speech. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 2, 51-81.
Rochester, S. R., and Gill J. 1973. Production of complex sentences in monologues and dialogues. Journal of verbal learning and verbal dialogues 12. 210-223.
Rockwell, B. H. 1994. Image and idea: repetition and dialogic reproduction of medical authority in popular media forms. Repetition in discourse interdisciplinary perspectives, ed. by Barbara Johnstone. Norwood, N.Y: Ablex.
Rowe, M. B. 1974. Pausing phenomena: Influence on the quality of instruction. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 3. 3, 203-224.
Ruder, K. F., and Jensen, P. J. 1972. Fluent and hesitation pauses as a function of syntactic complexity. Journal of speech and hearing research 15. 49-60.
Schiffrin, D. Anaphoric then: aspectual, textual, and epistemic meaning. Linguistics 30. 753-792.
Schilperoord, Joost. 1996. It''s about time: temporal aspects of cognitive processes in text production. The Netherlands: Amsterdam.
Schuetze-Coburn, S., M. Shapley, and E. G. Weber. 1991. Units of intonation in discourse: a comparison of acoustic and auditory analyses. Language and Speech 34. 3, 207-234.
Siegman, A.W. and B. Pope. 1966. Ambiguity and verbal fluency in the TAT. Journal of Consulting Psychology 30. 239-245.
Smith, V. L. and H. H. Clark. 1993. On the course of answering questions. Journal of memory and language 32. 25-38.
Stenstrom, A. 1986. A study of pauses as demarcators in discourse and syntax. In Arts-Jan and Meijs, Willem (eds), Corpus Linguistics: New Studies in the Analysis and Exploration of Computer Corpora. Amsterdam: Radopi. 201-218.
Strangert, E. 1990. Where do pauses occur in texts read aloud? Proceedings from the twelfth Scandinavian conference of linguistics, Reykjavik.
Stuckenberg, A and D. C. O'' Connell. 1988. The long and short of it: Reports of pause occurrence and duration in speech. Journal of psycholinguistic Research 17. 1, 19-28.
Su, Lily I-wen. 1995. Conversational coherence: The use of ranhou in Chinese spoken discourse. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Languges in Taiwan. Jane 3-4. Taipei: National Taiwan University.
Tao, Hongyin. 1995. A preliminary study of patterns of prosody-syntax mismatch in Mandarin Narrative Discourse. Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Languges in Taiwan. Jane 3-4. Taipei: National Taiwan University.
Tao, Hongyin. 1996. Units in Mandarin conversation: prosody, discouse, and grammar. John Benjamins.
Taylor, I. 1969. Content and structure in sentence production. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior 8. 170-175.
Ting, Lee-ping. Interpretation and sequential organization of requests in spoken and written Chinese discourse. M.A. National Taiwan University.
Wang, F. Yu-Fang. 1997. Dispreferred responses in Mandarin Chinese conversation. Proceedings of the first symposium on discourse and syntax in Chinese and Formosan languages. June 14-15. Taipei: National Taiwan University.
Wilkes, A. L. and R. A. Kennedy. 1969. Relationship between pausing and retrieval latency in sentences of varying grammatical form. Journal of Experimental Psychology 79. 2, 241-245.
Yang, Li-Chiung. 1995. Intonation structures of Mandarin discourse. Georgetown University Dissertation.
Yang, M. 1992. Na in Chinese Spoken Discourse. MA. Taipei: National Taiwan Normal University.
Yang, Yi-li. 1996. Silence is gold: an introduction to pausology. NCCU Research Bulletin 6. 43-77.
Yang, Yi-li. 1997. The pattern of pauses in monologues: A case in Mandarin Chinese. The Journal of National Chengchi University Vol. 75.207-256.