臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

論中文的派生名詞
詞法與語意的交互作用
余建成
摘要
本論文旨在探討中文動詞透過零構形(zero-derivation)轉換成名詞時，其語意和詞法之間的互動關係。 研究資料來源有二﹕其一、中央研究院平衡語料庫；其二、台大中文口語語料庫(Taita Spoken Chinese Corpus)裡擷取八個小時的口語對話。 本研究的主要目的乃在探究書寫文字及口語表達時，促成動詞轉換名詞或名詞轉換動詞的催化因素。 此外，本文亦從歷史語言學的角度探討在名物化(nominalization)和denominalization兩種過程的影響之下，動詞和名詞的內部結構如何變化。
研究結果發現書寫文字和口語表達兩種語料庫的證據顯示在動詞轉換名詞與名詞轉換成動詞時，二者之間有顯著的差異。至少有三種條件限制動詞和名詞之間的轉換：音節、語意及詞法句法。 首先，音節數不僅與轉類的方向有相關；它並與名物化的過程相關。 在古中文及現代中文，單音節名詞較易轉類成動詞；然而，現代中文裡，雙音節名詞則很少轉類成動詞使用。 另外，在現代中文裡，單音節及雙音節動詞均易轉類成名詞。 資料顯示，雙音節動詞比單音節動詞較易轉類成動(24.54% 比16.81%)。 其次，動詞來源詞 (verbal counterpart)的語意亦在名物化的過程當中扮演重要的角色。 動作動詞(action nouns)比狀態動詞(state verbs)較不易經過名物化的過程。 此外，構成複合動詞的語素的語意亦會對名物化的可能性有程度性的影響。 第三，由動詞來源詞轉類而來的零構形名詞的語意轉換類型與複合動詞的內部結構有關。對等、主謂及同心結構的複合動詞 (coordinate, subject-predicate and endocentric constructions)較容易衍生結果、主事及工具名詞 (resultative, agentive and instrumental nominalization)；另一方面，動賓及動補結構等複合動詞 ( subject-predicate, verb-object and verb-complement verb compounds)則極少衍生成名詞。 本文將藉由語料庫所得的統計結果來印證上面所提的一些觀察。

On Chinese Derived Nominals:
Interface Between Morphology and Semantics
Yu Chien-cheng
Abstract
This thesis is aimed at investigating the interface between morphology and semantics in deriving Chinese zero-derived nominals. Data are collected from two sources, viz. the Academia Sinica Corpus and eight hours' spoken discourse from Taita Spoken Chinese Corpus. The major objective of this research is to probe into the factors influencing the use of zero-derived nominals and denominal verbs in oral and written discourse. Besides, from a historical point of view, this study investigates how the basic internal structures of verbs and nouns change under the influence of nominalization and denominalization processes.
It is found that the use of zero-derived nominals and denominal verbs is significantly different in oral and written corpus. There are at least three constraints on the conversion between verbs and nouns, namely, syllabic, semantic and morphosyntactic. First, syllabicity correlates not only with the direction of conversion but also with the process of nominalization. Monosyllabic nouns convert easily to verbs in both classical and modern Chinese while disyllabic nouns rarely do in modern Chinese. Moreover, both monosyllabic and disyllabic verbs easily convert to nouns. Disyllabic verbs enjoy a higher percentage (24.54%) of undergoing nominalization than monosyllabic ones (16.81%) in our data. Second, the semantics of the verbal counterpart also plays a role in the process of nominalization. Action verbs such as dushu 'read' are less likely to become nominalized than state verbs such as congming 'wise'. In addition, the semantics of the component parts of a verb compound also have effect on the possibility for it to become nominalized. Third, patterns of semantic shifts of zero-derived nouns from their verbal counterparts can be shown to be related to the internal structures of verb compounds. As for their relation to the internal structure, coordinate, subject-predicate and endocentric verb compounds easily go through the process of resultative, agentive, or instrumental nominalizations, while verb-object and verb-complement verb compounds rarely do. All of the above-mentioned observations will be justified on the basis of the statistics from the corpora.

Table of Contents
Abstract
1.Introduction
1.1 Background1
1.2 Organization of the Thesis2
1.3 Literature Review2
1.3.1 Verbs, Nouns and Nominalization3
1.3.2 N to V or V to N: Problem of Direction of Conversion11
1.3.3 Syllabicity and Nominalization 14
1.3.4 Semantics and Nominalization 16
1.3.5 Internal Structure and Nominalization18
1.3.6 Summary 20
1.4 Research Questions 20
1.5 Methodology 21
1.5.1 The Corpus 22
1.5.2 Statistical Software 22
2.Possibility of Nominalization: Corpus-Based Statistics23
2.1 Four Types of Verbs23
2.1.1 Verb-Complement Compound Verbs23
2.1.2 Verb-Object Compound Verbs25
2.1.3 Hua-suffixed Verbs26
2.1.4 General Verbs 27
2.2 Syllabicity and Nominalization27
2.3 Semantics and Nominalization 36
2.3.1 Classifying Verbs and Nominalization38
2.3.2 Active and Stative Verbs vs. Nominalizations41
2.4 Interaction Between Syllabicity and Semantics in Nominalization 43
2.5 Internal Structure and Nominalization 46
2.5.1 VC Compound Verbs and Nominalization 47
2.5.2 VO Compound Verbs and Nominalization49
2.5.3 Hua-suffixed Verbs 49
2.6 Transitivity and Nominalization 51
2.7 Summary 53
3.Semantics and Morphology in the Process of Nominalization54
3.1 Semantics of Zero-derived Nominals in Chinese54
3.1.1 Semantics of Deverbal Nouns in English 54
3.1.2 Semantics of Derived Nouns in Chinese 55
3.1.2.1 Multiple Conversions From the Same Verb59
3.1.2.2 Hierarchy of Productivity 60
3.1.3 Semantics of the Verbs and the Derived Nouns61
3.1.4 Collocations with Classifiers67
3.1.4.1 Frequency of Occurrence 67
3.1.4.2 Collocations with Numerals 71
3.1.4.3 Collocations with Action and Stative Nouns73
3.2 Compounding Processes and Nominalization 73
3.2.1 Verb Compounding Processes 73
3.2.2 Verb Compounding Processes and Their Nominalization 75
3.2.2.1 Subject-predicate Verb Compounds75
3.2.2.2 Verb-object Verb Compounds76
3.2.2.3 Verb-complement Verb Compounds78
3.2.2.4 Coordinate Verb Compounds 78
3.2.2.5 Modifier-modified Verb Compounds78
3.3 Nominalization in Oral Discourse80
3.4 Summary 88
4.Verbalization 91
4.1 Categories of Verbalization 91
4.1.1 Semantic Categories of English Denominal Verbs92
4.1.2 Semantic Categories of Classical Chinese Denominal Verbs93
4.1.3 Semantic Categories of Modern Spoken Chinese Denominal
Verbs93
4.1.3.1 Agent Verbs 96
4.1.3.2 Instrument Verbs 102
4.1.3.3 Goal Verbs 103
4.1.3.4 Event Verbs 104
4.2 Possible Explanations for the Scarcity of Denominal Verbs in Modern Chinese 105
4.2.1 Verb Compounding is Productive105
4.2.2 Conceptual Constraints106
4.3 Summary107
5.Conclusion110
5.1 Summary110
5.2 Recommendations For Further Research112
Notation 116
Footnotes 117
Bibliography122
Appendix I 130
AppendixII133

Bibliography
1. Aronoff, Mark. 1976. Word-formation in generative grammar. Cambridge: MIT Press.
2. Aronoff, Mark. 1980. Contextuals. Language 56: 744-758.
3. Aronoff, Mark. 1983. Potential words, actual words, productivity and frequency. Proceedings of the XIII International Congress of Linguistics, ed. by Hattori Shiro, Inoue Kazuko, Shimomiya Tadao and Nagashima Yoshio. Tokyo: Tokyo Press.
4. Bolton, Whitney F. 1986. Verbal conversion. English Today: the international review of the English language 7: 39-40. New York.
5. Cannon, Garland. 1985. Functional shift in English. Linguistics 23: 411-431.
6. Chan, Marjorie K. M. and James H.-Y. Tai. 1994. From nouns to verbs: verbalization in Chinese dialects and East Asian language. In the 6th North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL6) Volume 2: 49-74. L.A.: GSIL, University of Southern California.
7. Chan, Ningping. 1984. The nouny alternative: crossing the verb/noun borderline in Modern Chinese. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley.
8. Chang, Claire Hsunhui. 1997. V-V compounds in Mandarin Chinese: argument structure and semantics, New approaches to Chinese word formation, ed. By Jerome L. Packard, 77-101. Mouton De Gruyter.
9. Chao, Y. R. 1968. A grammar of spoken Chinese. Berkeley: California University Press.
10. Chi, T. R. 1976. A lexical analysis of verb-noun compounds in Mandarin Chinese. Taipei: The Crane publishing Co., Ltd.
11. Chinese Knowledge Processing Group. 1993. ZhongWen CiLei FenXi [Analysis of Chinese Lexical Categories]. Nankang: Academia Sinica.
12. Chomsky, N. 1970. Remarks on nominalization. Readings in English transformational grammar, ed. by R. Jacobs and P. Rosenbaum, 184-221. Waltham, Mass.: Ginn.
13. Clark, E. V. and H. H. Clark. 1979. When noun surfaces as verbs. Language 55: 767-811.
14. Clark, H. 1983. Making sense of nouce sense. The process of language understanding , ed. by G.B. Flores d’Arcais and R. J. Javella, 297-331. New York: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
15. Comrie, B., and S. Thompson. 1985. Lexical nominalization. Language typology and syntactic description III, ed. by T. Shopen, 349-98. Cambridge: University Press.
16. Cruse, D. A. 1986. Lexical Semantics. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.
17. Downer, G. B. 1959. Derivation by tone-change in Classical Chinese. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 22: 258-290.
18. Fillmore, Charles. 1992. The Hard Road from Verbs to Nouns. In honor of William S-Y. Wang: interdisciplinary studies on language and language change. Pyramid press.
19. Fu, Jingqi. 1994. On deriving Chinese derived nominals: evidence for V-to-N raising. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts.
20. Grimshaw, Jane B. 1990. Argument structure. The MIT Press.
21. Hockett, Charles. F. 1994. Conversion: the problem of parts of speech in English. Etudes Anglaises: Grande Bretagne, Etats Unis, Paris, France.
22. Hong, W. M. and C. R. Huang, Z. Z. Tang & K. J. Chen. 1991. Preliminary study on the word formation rules of Chinese derivatives. Paper presented at the Third World Chinese Language Teaching Seminar.
23. Hopper, Paul J. & Sandra A. Thompson. 1984. The discourse basis for lexical categories in universal grammar. Language 60: 703-752.
24. Hopper, Paul J. & Sandra A. Thompson. 1985. The iconicity of the universal categories ‘noun’ and ‘verb’. Iconicity in syntax, ed. by Haiman. J. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
25. Hua, Quankun. 1984. Noun-verb conversion in contemporary English. Waiguoyu 1(29): 29-31.
26. Huang C. R. Mandarin Chinese NP de - A comparative study of current grammatical theories. Institute of History and Philology Academia Sinica Special Publication No. 93, 1989.
27. Huang, C.-T. James. 1992. On lexical structure and syntactic projection. Proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Chinese Languages and Linguistics, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan.
28. Huang, Shuanfan. 1987. Three studies in Chinese morphology. Taipei: National Taiwan University. Unpublished manuscript.
29. Huang, Shuanfan. 1992a. Lexical innovation and semantic change. Paper represented at the Third International Symposium on Chinese Languages and Linguistics, National Tsing Hua University, Taiwan.
30. Huang, Shuanfan. 1992b. Mingshi lilun yu yiyi bianhua [Theories of names and semantic change]. The First Workshop on Cognitive Science, Taipei.
31. Huang, Shuanfan. 1994. Chinese as a metonymic language. In honor of William S-Y Wang: interdisciplinary studies on language and language change. Pyramid press.
32. Huang, Shuanfan. 1997. Chinese as a headless language in compounding morphology. New approaches to Chinese word formation, ed. By Jerome L. Packard, 261-283. Mouton De Gruyter.
33. Langacker, Ronald. 1987. Nouns and verbs. Language 63(1): 53-94.
34. Langacker, Ronald. 1988. A view of linguistic semantics. Topics in cognitive linguistics, ed. by B. Rudzka-Ostyn, 49-90. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
35. Lees, R. B. 1960. The grammar of English nominalization. Mouton: the Hague.
36. Levin, Beth. 1993. English verb classes and alternations. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
37. Levin, Beth. 1993. Towards a lexical organization of English verbs. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
38. Li, Chang-hsien. 1987. Denominal verbs in Mandarin Chinese: a perspective from transitivity. M.A. thesis, National Taiwan Normal University.
39. Li, Charles, N. and Sandra Thompson. 1981. Mandarin Chinese: a functional reference grammar. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
40. Li, Fengxiang. 1994. A diachronic study of V-V compounds in Chinese. Ph.D. Dissertation, State University of New York.
41. Lieber, Rochelle. 1981. Morphological conversion within a restrictive theory of the lexicon. The scope of lexical rules, ed. by Moortgat Michael, Hlust Harry van der, and Hoekstra Teun,161-200. Dordrecht: Foris.
42. Lien, Ching-fa 1980. A Cross-linguistic look at noun-verb conversion. Fu Jen Studies: Literature and Lingusitics 13: 77-96.
43. Liu, Cheng-hui. 1991. Nouns, nominalization and denominalization in Classical Chinese: a study based on Mencius and Zuozhuan. Ph.D. dissertation, the Ohio State University.
44. Liu, Chenghui. 1992a. Nominalization and verbalization in ZuoZhuan. Paper represented in First International Symposium on Chinese Languages and Linguistics (ICCL-1).
45. Liu, Chenghui 1992b. Xiandai hanyu mingwuhua de linggouxing guilu [Zero-derivation rules of nominalization in modern Chinese]. National Science Council Project.
46. Mao, Wen-Juan. 1992. Chinese argument-taking deverbal nominals: a study on argument structure and morphology. M.A. thesis, Fu Jen Catholic University.
47. Marchand, Hans. 1969. The categories and types of present-day English word-formation (2nd edition). Munich: Beck.
48. McCawley, James M. 1991. Justifying part-of-speech assignments in Mandarin. Journal of Chinese Linguistics 20 (2): 211-245.
49. Mithun, Marianne. 1984. The evolution of noun incorporation. Language 60. 847-894.
50. Mourelatos, Alexander P. D. 1982. Events, processes, and states. Tense and aspect, ed. by Tedeschi & Zaenen, 191-212. New York: Academic Press.
51. Myers, Scott. 1984. Zero-derivation and inflection. MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 7, 53-69.
52. Ostler, N. and B.T.S. Atkins. 1992. Predictable meaning shift: some linguistic properties of lexical implications rules. Lexical semantics and knowledge representation, ed. by J. Pustejovsky and S. Bergler, 87-100. New York: Springer Verlag.
53. Quirk, R., S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, and J. Svartvik. 1985. A comprehensive grammar of the English language. London: Longman.
54. Rigler, Elina. 1988. The semantic classification of deverbal nouns. Working Papers in Language Processing No. 2.
55. Rose, James H. 1973. Principled limitations on productivity in denominal verbs. Foundations of Language 10: 509-526.
56. Sanders, Gerald. 1988. Zero derivation and the overt analogue criterion. Theoretical morphology: approaches in modern linguistics, ed. by Hammond Michael and Noonan Michael, 155-175. San Diego: Academic.
57. Shi, Z. Y. 1960. On the nouny use of Chinese verbs and adjectives. ZongGuo YuWen 1960 (12): 422-425.
58. Tai, James. 1992a. Relevant Categorial Distinctions in Chinese. CLS 18: 495-506.
59. Tai, James. 1992b. Category shifts and word-formation redundancy rules in Chinese. Paper represented to The Third International Symposium on Chinese Language and Linguistics, July 1-3, Taiwan.
60. Tang, Tingchi. 1989. Studies on Chinese morphology and syntax 2. Taipei: Student Book Co., Ltd.
61. Tang, Tingchi. 1994. Chinese corpus and syntactic information. Proceedings of ROCLING-VII, 73-90. Xinzhu: National Tsing Hua University.
62. Tsai, Lihua. 1983. A contrastive study of Chinese and English denominal verbs: a pedagogical approach. M.A. thesis, Fu Jen Catholic University.
63. Vendler, Zeno. 1967. Linguistics and philosophy. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.
64. Woodworth, N. L. 1991. From noun to verb and from verb to noun: a cross-linguistic study of class-changing morphology. Ph.D. Dissertation, State University of New York. (Abstract Only)
65. Wang, Li. 1958. Hanyu Shigao [History of the Chinese Language]. Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe.
66. Wu, Tieping. 1991. On the conversion of meanings and the two opposite meanings of one word. Waiguoyu 3 (73): 28-34 ~ 4 (74): 13-18.
67. Yeh, M. L., Z. Z. Tang., C. R. Huang & K. J. Chen. 1992. Preliminary study on the nominalization of Chinese verbs: argument-taking nominalized derivatives in Chinese. Proceedings of ROCLING-V, 174-198.
68. Zhu, D. X., J. W. Lu, Z. Ma. 1961. On the nominal capacity of verbs and adjectives. Xiandai Hanyu Yufa Yanjiu [ A study on modern Chinese syntax]. Beijing: Commercial Press.
69. Zucchi, Alessandro. 1989. The language of propositions and events: issues in syntax and the semantics of nominalization. Ph. D. dissertation, University of Massachusetts. (Abstract Only)