臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

本研究旨在探討台灣地區兒童在不同社會情境下使用英語請求的語式發展。研究對象為台灣國小學童共六十人，依程度分為低程度組、中等程度組和高程度組，及二十名美籍人士。在十二種不同情境下，研究對象用英語執行請求行為，實驗所操控的社會變項，包括說話對象的地位（status）、熟悉度（familiarity）以及對聽者的負擔程度（ranking of imposition）。研究對象所使用的請求的語式，依請求策略（strategies）、開場語（alerters）、外部及內部修飾語（external and internal modifiers）部分加以分析，並以卡方值（Chi-square）檢驗分析。
研究結果發現程度愈好的學習者逐漸減少使用直接策略、親密的開場語和內部的修飾辭，並且逐漸增加公約的間接策略、恭敬的開場語以及外部修飾語。然而，和母語人士相比，台灣兒童仍較傾向使用直接策略以及不同的句型結構。此外，在社會變項影響方面，對台灣兒童來說，社會地位和所需負擔程度的影響比熟悉度大。只有較高程度組會隨著說話對象的地位及所需負擔程度不同來變化請求策略，但兒童各組皆能隨說話對象地位不同而變化開場語。然而，美籍人士組不僅因說話對象地位不同而變化開場語，同時也隨著三種社會變項變化其請求策略、外部修飾語以及內部修飾語。因此，本研究中的兒童對社會變項的敏感度以及句型語式尚未達到母語人士的程度，但有逐漸傾向母語語式的發展。此外，開場語的變化較簡單且發展較早，但外部修飾語較複雜且發展較晚。本研究建議，為了避免經驗不足、教學引發的錯誤、母語的影響等阻礙語用能力發展，英語老師應提供常用句型、明示教學、情境活動、可信的教材內容來提升學童的語用技巧及對社會變項的敏感度。

The present study aimed to explore the request strategies used in different situations by Taiwanese EFL children with different levels of English proficiency. Three EFL young learner groups, including Low, Intermediate and Advanced English proficiency groups, and a group of native English adult speakers participated in this study, with twenty subjects in each. A corpus of 80 subjects’ request behaviors in 12 situations, which vary along with social variables of Status, Familiarity, and the Ranking of imposition, was coded into one of the subcategories of strategies, alerters, external modifiers and internal modifiers respectively, and analyzed through Chi-square tests.
The results showed that EFL young learners with higher English proficiency gradually increased the use of conventionally indirect strategies, polite alerters, and supportive moves, but decreased the use of direct strategies, intimate alerters, and internal modifiers as a function of proficiency. However, compared with English native speakers, EFL learners tended to employ direct strategies rather than conventionally ones and used different linguistic forms. In regard to the effect of social variables, the variable of status and ranking of imposition affect the way young learners make requests to a greater extent than familiarity. The findings revealed that among EFL learners, only advanced young EFL learners varied strategies with social variables of status and ranking of imposition. Besides, the three EFL groups varied their alerter types with the variable of status, but they did not vary external and internal modifiers with the three social variables. However, NES speakers not only varied their alerters with status, but also varied their strategies, external modifiers and internal modifiers with the three social variables. Therefore, the speech act performance of EFL children in the present study still have not yet approximated that of NES subjects, and the pragmatic development of alerters is the earliest, while that of external modifiers is the latest. In view of the findings of this study, classroom activities were suggested to help young learners develop English request skills and to enhance their awareness of social variables in speech act performance.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
LIST OF TABLES 4
LIST OF FIGURES 6
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 7
1.1 Background and Motivation 7
1.2 Research Questions 10
1.3 Significance 11
1.4 Organization of the Thesis 12
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 13
2.1 Politeness 13
2.1.1 Definition of politeness 14
2.1.2 Politeness Principles 15
2.1.2.1 The Social-norm View 15
2.1.2.2 The Conversational-maxim View 15
2.1.2.3 The Face-saving View 17
2.1.3 Social variables in polite request 20
2.2 Speech Acts of request 21
2.2.1 Characteristics of Request 22
2.2.2 Classification of Request Strategies 24
2.3 Cross-cultural Notions 28
2.3.1 Politeness in Chinese 28
2.3.1.1 Gu’s Maxims of Politeness 28
2.3.1.2 Chinese Face 29
2.3.2 Polite Strategies in English and Chinese 30
2.4 Interlanguage development 33
2.4.1 Factors of Interlanguage Pragmatic Failure 33
2.4.2 Developmental patterns of L2 request 36
CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY AND ANALYSIS FRAMWORK 39
3.1 Subjects and Sampling Strategy 39
3.2 Materials 41
3.2.1 The COPT method 41
3.2.2 Contents 42
3.3 Procedure 45
3.4 Coding scheme and Measures 45
3.4.1 Segmentation and Classification 45
3.4.2 Taxonomy 47
3.4.2.1 Head Act 47
3.4.2.2 Alerters 50
3.4.2.3 External Modifier 51
3.4.2.4 Internal Modifiers 52
3.4.2.5 Summary of Coding Scheme 54
3.4.3. Coding Reliability 56
3.4.4 Measures 56
CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 57
4.1 Results of Request Strategy Analysis 58
4.1.1 Variation of Request Strategies in the Situations with Varied Status 61
4.1.2 Variation of Request Strategies in the Situations with Varied Familiarity 66
4.1.3 Variation of Request Strategies in the Situations with Varied Ranking 72
4.2 Discussion of Request Strategies 78
4.2.1 The Role of English Proficiency 78
4.2.1.1 Use of Direct Strategies 80
4.2.1.2 Use of Conventionally and Nonconventionally Indirect Strategies 81
4.2.2 Influence of Social Factors 83
4.3 Results of Alerter Analysis 85
4.3.1 Variation of Alerters in the Situations with Varied Status 88
4.3.2 Variation of Alerters in the Situations with Varied Familiarity 89
4.3.3 Variation of Alerters in the Situations with Varied Ranking 89
4.4 Discussion of Alerters 90
4.4.1 The Role of English Proficiency 90
4.4.2 Influence of Social Factors 92
4.5 Results of External Modifier Analysis 93
4.5.1 Variation of External Modifiers in the Situations with Varied Status 96
4.5.2 Variation of External Modifiers in the Situations with Varied Familiarity 97
4.5.3 Variation of External Modifiers in the Situations with Varied Ranking 98
4.6 Discussion of External Modifiers 99
4.6.1 The Role of English Proficiency 99
4.6.2 Influence of Social Factors 101
4.7 Results of Internal Modifier Analysis 102
4.7.1 Variation of Internal Modifiers in the Situations with Varied Status 105
4.7.2 Variation of Internal Modifiers in the Situations with Varied Familiarity 106
4.7.3 Variation of Internal Modifiers in the Situations with Varied Ranking 107
4.8 Discussion of Internal modifier 108
4.8.1 The role of English Proficiency 108
4.8.2 Influence of social factors 110
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 112
5.1 Summary 112
5.2 Pedagogical Implications 113
5.3 Suggestions for Further Study 115
REFERENCES 117
APPENDIX 1 ENGLISH PROFICIENCY TEST 124
APPENDIX 2 RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY OF PROFICIENCY TEST
APPENDIX 3 THE CARTOON ORAL PRODUCTION TASK (COPT)

REFERENCES
Aijmer, K. (1996). Conventional routines in English. London: Longman.
Astington, J. W. (1988). Promises: Words or deeds? First Language, 8, 259-270.
Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Bardovi-Harlig, K., & Haetford, B. (1993). Learning the rules of academic talk: A longitudinal study of pragmatic change. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15, 279-304.
Bates, E. (1976). Language and context: The acquisition of pragmatics. New York: Academic Press.
Beebe, L. M. (1988). Five sociolinguistic approaches to second language acquisition. In L. M. Beebe (Ed.), Issues in second language acquisition: Multiple perspectives (pp. 43-77). Cambridge, MA: Newbury House.
Blum-Kulka, S. (1987). Indirectness and politeness in requests: Same or different? Journal of Pragmatics, 11, 131-146.
Blum-Kulka, S., & House, J. (1989). Cross-cultural and situational variation in requestive behavior. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House, & G. Kasper (Eds.), Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests and apologies (pp. 123-154). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Blum-Kulka, S., House, J., & Kasper, G. (Eds.) (1989). Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests and apologies. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Blum-Kulka, S., & Olshtain, E. (1984). Request and apologies: A cross-cultural study of speech act realization patterns (CCSAPP). Applied Linguistics, 5 (3), 196-213.
Brown, G. (1998). Context creation in discourse understanding. Context in Language Learning & Language Understanding (Malmkjǽr, K., & Williams, J. Ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness: Some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bryant, J. B. (2001). Language in social contexts: Communicative competence in the preschool years. In J. B. Gleason (Ed.), The development of language (pp. 213-253). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Boxer, D., & Pickering, L. (1995). Problems in the presentation of speech acts in ELT materials: The case of complaints. ELT Journal, 49 (1), 44-58.
Chen, S. C., & Chen, S. H. (2003). A pilot study on Chinese EFL learners’ perception on English request strategies. To appear in the Proceedings of the Twentieth Conference on English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China. Taipei: Crane.
Chung, Y. L. (1999). How an EFL teacher fosters students’ pragmatic and communicative competence in an EFL classroom: A case study. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Taipei Teachers College.
Cohen, A. D. (1996). Developing the ability to perform speech acts. SSLA, 18, 253-267.
Cohen, A., & Olshtain, E. (1981). Enveloping a measure of sociocultural competence: The case of apology. Language Learning, 1, 113-134.
Di Pietro, R. J. (1981). Discourse and real-life roles in ESL classroom. TESOL QUARTERLY, 15 (1), 27-33.
Donahue, M. & Parsons, A. H. (1982). The use of roleplay to overcome cultural fatigue. TESOL QUARTERLY, 16 (3), 359-365.
Edmondson, W. (1981). Spoken Discourse: A Model for Analysis. London: Longman.
Ellis, R. (1992). Learning to communicate in the classroom: A study of two languages learners’ requests. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 14, 1-23.
Ervin-Tripp, S. (1976). Is Sybil there? The structure of some American English directives. Language in Society, 5, 25-66.
Fraser, B. (1990). Perspectives on politeness. Journal of pragmatics, 14, 219-236.
Færch, C., & Kasper, G.. (1989). Internal and external modification in interlanguage request realization. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House, & G. Kasper (Eds.), Cross-cultural pragmatics: Requests and apologies (pp. 221-247). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic and Conversation. In P. Cole, & J. Morgan (Eds.), Speech acts: Syntax and semantics (Vol. 3, pp. 41-58). New York: Academic Press.
Gu, Y. (1990). Politeness phenomena in Modern Chinese. Journal of Pragmatics, 14, 237-257.
Hill, T. (1997). The development of pragmatic competence in an EFL context. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Temple University, Tokyo, Japan.
Hong, W. (1996). An empirical study of Chinese request strategies. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 122, 127-138.
House, J. (1996). Developing pragmatic fluency in English as a foreign language: Routines and metapragmatic awareness. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 225-252.
Hsiao, S. H. C. (1999). A developmental study of polite registers in school-age children’s request. Unpublished master’s thesis, Fu-Jen Catholic University.
Hsu, Y. C., & Chen, S. H. (2001). A pilot study on young Chinese EFL learners’ request strategies. In Selected Papers from the Tenth International Symposium on English Teaching (pp. 417-428). Taipei: Crane.
Hu, H. C. (1944). The Chinese concepts of “face.” American Anthropologist, 46, 45-64.
Hughes, A. (1989). Testing for language teachers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Jiang, W. (2000). The Relationship between Culture and Language. ELT Journal, 54(4), 328-334.
Kasper, G. (1990). Linguistic politeness: Current research issues. Journal of pragmatics, 14, 193-218.
Kasper, G. (1997). Can pragmatic competence be taught? Paper presented at the TESOL Conference, Orlando, Florida.
Kasper, G., & Dahl, M. (1991). Research methods in interlanguage pragmatics. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13, 215-247.
Kasper, G., & Zhang, Y. (1995). It’s good to be a bit Chinese: Foreign students’ experience of Chinese pragmatics. In G. Kasper (Ed.), Pragmatics of Chinese as native and target language (pp. 1-22). Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
Ladousse, G. P. (1987). Role Play. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lakoff, R. (1973). The logic of politeness: Or, minding your p’s and q’s. Chicago Linguistic Society, 9, 292-305.
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long, M. H. (1991). An introduction to second language acquisition research. London: Longman.
Lee, J. S., & McChesney, B. (2000). Discourse rating tasks: A teaching tool for developing sociocultural competence. ELT Journal, 54 (2), 161-168.
Lee-Wong, Song Mei. (1994). Imperative in requests: Direct or impolite- observations from Chinese. Pragmatics 4.4, 491-515.
Leech, G. (1983). Principles of pragmatics. New York: Longman.
Lei, C. H. (2001). Social variables and Chinese adolescents’ directives: The development of the speech acts in junior high, senior high, and college students. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Tsing Hua University.
Levinson, S. C. (1983). Pragmatics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Li, Z. Y. (1989). Major social variables and their realization patterns of request in Mandarin Chinese. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Taiwan Normal University.
Liao, C. C. (1997). Comparing directives: American English, Mandarin and Taiwanese English. Taiwan: Crane.
Madsen, H. S. (1983). Techniques in testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Mao, L. R. (1994). Beyond politeness theory: ‘Face’ revisited and renewed. Journal of Pragmatics, 21, 451-486.
McTear, M. (1985). Children’s conversation. New York: Blackwell.
Morgan, J. L. (1978). Two types of convention in indirect speech acts. In P. Cole (Ed.), Syntax and Semantics 9: Pragmatics (pp. 261-80). New York: Academic Press.
Nation, P. (1989). Speaking activities: Five features. ELT Journal, 43 (1), 24-29.
Peng, C. S. (2000). Teaching speech acts in Taiwan’s EFL classroom: Analysis of teaching materials. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Tsing Hua University.
Rinnert, C., & Kobayashi, H. (1999). Requestive hints in Japanese and English. Journal of Pragmatics, 31, 1173-1201.
Rose, K. R. (2000). An exploratory cross-sectional study of interlanguage pragmatic development. SSLA, 22, 27-67.
Scarcella, R. (1979). On speaking politely in a second language. In C. Yorio, K. Perkins, & J. Schachter (Eds.), On TESOL ’79: The learner in focus (pp. 274-287). Washington, DC: TESOL.
Schmidt, R. (1983). Interaction, acculturation, and the acquisition of communicative competence: A case study of an adult. In N. Wolfson, & E. Judd (Eds.), Sociolinguistic and language acquisition (pp. 137-174). New York: Newbury House.
Scollon, R., & Scollon, S. W. (1995). Intercultural communication: A discourse approach. Oxford: Blackwell.
Searle, J. R. (1976). The classification of illocutionary acts. Language in Society, 5, 1-24.
Shih, Y. H. (1986). Conversational politeness and foreign language teaching. Taipei: Crane.
Snow, C. E., et al. (1996). Learning how to say what one means: A longitudinal study of children’s speech act use. MA: Blackwell Publisher.
Stevens, J. (1992). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (2nd.ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Su, S. S. M. (1988). The acquisition of directives in pre-school children in pragmatic and syntactic perspectives. Unpublished master’s thesis, Fu-Jen Catholic University.
Takahashi, T. (1996). Pragmatic transferability. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 18, 189-223.
Takahashi, T., & Beebe, L. M. (1987). The development of pragmatic competence by Japanese learners of English. JALT Journal, 8, 131-155.
Takahashi, T., & Beebe, L. M. (1993). Cross-linguistic influence in the speech act of correction. In S. Blum-Kulka, & G. Kasper (Eds.), Interlanguage pragmatics (pp. 138-157). New York: Oxford University Press.
Thomas, J. (1983). Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics, 4 (2), 91-112.
Ting, L. P. (1997). Sequential organization of request: A discourse analysis based on spoken and written Chinese texts. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Taiwan University.
Trosborg, A. (1995). Interlanguage pragmatics: Requests, complaints, and apologies. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Wierzbicka, A. (1985). Different cultures, different languages, different speech acts. Journal of pragmatics, 9, 145-161.
Wildner-Bassett, M. (1994). Intercultural pragmatics and proficiency: “Polite” noises for cultural appropriateness. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 32, 3-17.
Wilkinson, L. C., Wilkinson, A. C., Spinrlli, F., & Chiang, C. P. (1984). Metalinguistic knowledge of pragmatic rules in school-age children. Child Language, 55, 2130-2140.
Yeung, L.N.T. (1997). Polite requests in English and Chinese business correspondence in Hong Kong. Journal of Pragmatics, 27, 505-552.
Yu, M. C. (1999). Universalistic and culture-specific perspectives on variation in the acquisition of pragmatic competence in a second language. Pragmatics, 9 (2), 281-312.
Yule, G. (1997). Pragmatics. (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Zhang, Y. (1995a). Strategies in Chinese requesting. In G. Kasper (Ed.), Pragmatics of Chinese as native and target language (pp. 24-68). Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.
Zhang, Y. (1995b). Indirectness in Chinese requesting. In G. Kasper (Ed.), Pragmatics of Chinese as native and target language (pp. 69-118). Second Language Teaching and Curriculum Center, Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.