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研究生:李仁喜
研究生(外文):Jen-Shi Lee
論文名稱:海事刑罰與經濟分析
論文名稱(外文):The Economic Analysis for Criminal Sanctions of Crimes at Sea
指導教授:周成瑜周成瑜引用關係
指導教授(外文):Chen-Yo Choh
學位類別:碩士
校院名稱:國立臺灣海洋大學
系所名稱:海洋法律研究所
學門:法律學門
學類:專業法律學類
論文種類:學術論文
論文出版年:2005
畢業學年度:93
語文別:中文
論文頁數:154
中文關鍵詞:海事刑法經濟分析海盜罪偷渡走私海上犯罪
外文關鍵詞:Maritime Criminal LawEconomic Analysis of LawPiracyTraffickingSmugglingCrimes at Sea
相關次數:
  • 被引用被引用:4
  • 點閱點閱:559
  • 評分評分:
  • 下載下載:98
  • 收藏至我的研究室書目清單書目收藏:4
鑒於近年來,海盜與海上暴力行為、偷渡、走私等海上犯罪活動頻繁,影響我國四面環海的國境安全,而且擴及陸上地下經濟猖獗,故本論文以海事刑法為研究領域,以經濟分析方法進行之,試圖分析海上犯罪行為之因果關係,歸納出可供海事刑法有關規範參考之基本原則,並對其法規修訂有所建議。
犯罪經濟學理論研究的主要問題在於環境產生犯不犯罪的誘因,其分析方法著重於執法對行為結果的影響,突顯報酬和處罰的機率與大小之重要。有關犯罪解釋,經濟分析集中於犯罪成本效益之理性選擇框架。然而令人質疑的是潛在罪犯有無足夠的訊息做這種理性選擇,故而有限理性理論認為人們有認知的限制,並非利益最大化而是滿足。是以財富分配不均,工作機會不均,正當工作無法滿足者即犯罪乃造成社會動盪,因而興起了犯罪控制產業。潛在罪犯比較「期望犯罪淨利」與「期望工作淨利」,選擇「犯罪」或「正當工作」。有鑑於此,社會亦有選擇:降低失業率與提高正當工作所得,與增加逮捕機率、定罪機率、監禁機率,以及量刑刑期。
法院的審判對於「公正」與「效率」,反復強調的是「公正」,在量刑上是否能做到平等。若政府以刑罰威脅則必須能承諾處罰,即在刑罰規範與量刑制度中,基於嵌入的犯罪史增加懲罰。所有的量刑基準雖然都被刑法分則的法定刑幅度所框定,但主要因素限定則為危害行為。所以在不考慮任何情節下,將危害性換算成一定刑罰量,危害行為成了確定量刑所應考慮的最根本因素。
海上犯罪活動背景存在著地下經濟市場,因受法律規定,變成非法活動,但其供需力作用一如合法市場之經濟原理運作。海盜曾有助於等化均衡且降低資本累積的壟斷趨勢,當其不再為可行方法時,即採用非法形式。海盜考量的是最大化其報酬與最小被捕獲機率,只要有重刑處罰風險,就會收歛。海盜需要嚴厲的犯罪處遇乃是與執法困難有關連,其受普遍管轄在於危害國際利益,即各國為保護其國際商業上的利益。
今日海盜不再於組織犯罪中起主要作用,而是走私。無論禁止什麼,其問題即在於「一群人的成本為另一群人的利益」,部分人永遠想擁有或配送違禁品。這種現象不僅發生在「物」,也發生在「人」,人口走私問題與物品走私問題幾乎可以等同並論。如果移民政策不容許已偷渡者特赦,則非法移民素質愈差,整個非法移民問題將愈惡化。故而偷渡者應除罪化,且應加強控管邊境增加偷渡逮捕率。由於偷渡者之非法身分,而無選擇,僅能在經濟邊緣維生。而其源頭則在於本地雇主非法僱用合法移民或非法移民,係為最大的利益攫取者,因此對本地雇主非法僱用移民被查獲時應施加處罰。偷運的潛在收入仍超過數倍成本,擴大執法若沒有加重處罰使其非法淨利益趨於零,則不太可能有嚇阻作用。偷運人數是蛇頭犯罪營利的主要關鍵變數,人數過少其單位成本增加,不符邊際效用。故應針對關鍵變數考量,增加其成本,即處罰依人數而遞增。
毒品合法化雖可使價格大幅下跌,長期結果毒品需求恐怕不降反升,就消費影響方面,合法化應視為風險性實驗。不同於毒品走私,煙草走私就是逃稅行為,經濟分析結果,加稅會降低煙草需求,縱然走私會略增,但是整體來說利大於弊。逃稅行為若無刑罰的嚇阻,僅有行政罰之補稅與罰鍰,鑒於逃稅被查獲機率很低,所要承擔的風險即大幅降低。故對於已經以逃稅行為使國家稅收產生實害結果者加以刑罰之制裁,讓逃稅行為人為其行為付出代價,以免其未來再為逃稅行為。一般物品的走私也是逃稅行為,若以一定數量的標準作為刑罰的依據,則應以所逃稅額為據。處罰之目的在於一般嚇阻,當可考量以走私案件平均貨物價值為基礎。即適用刑事處罰標準定在「走私貨物價值=預期處罰=走私利益」之臨界點上。
In recent years, persistent crimes at sea, such as acts of piracy and violence, trafficking, smuggling, etc., have impact on Taiwan’s sea surrounding territory safety, and make the island’s underground economic activities rampant. So this paper regards maritime criminal law as the research field, with the economic analysis method, and tries to find out the causality of such offenses, to sum up some viewpoints about the relevant statutes, as a proposed reference for amendment.
In economics of crime, the main question studied is how the environment produces incentives to commit, or not to commit, crimes; one focuses on the effects of law enforcement on the outcomes of actions, by an approach isolating the importance of the probabilities and magnitude of reward and punishment. Related to motivation as explanation of crime, economists focus on costs and benefits of crime in a rational choice framework. It is open to suspicion whether potential criminals have sufficient information about the environment and about outcomes of actions to make rational choices, therefore the theory of bounded rationality suggests that people have cognitive limitations, and that they stick to satisfying but not to maximization. Since the uneven wealth distribution and the unequal working opportunity make the unemployed committing crimes and causing the society turbulent, the crime control industry rises. The potential criminal weighs the expected net benefit “from the crime” and “from the job”, accordingly chooses “offending” or “working properly”. In view of this, the society could reduce the unemployment and raise the wage; also could increase arrest probability, conviction probability, imprison probability, and the length of sentence.
For justice or efficiency, the court’s trial repeatedly emphasizes justice whether can accomplish the equity on sentencing. If government want to deter people from offending, a criminal’s deserved punishment shall be committed. Namely escalating sanctions shall be based on offense history which are embedded in many penal codes and sentencing guidelines. Though all sentencing criteria are framed by the statutory punishment for specific offenses in criminal code, but the main restrain is the offense level. So without considering any plot, the offense level is converted into certain sentencing amount, and becomes the most confirmed basic factor for sentence.
Existing in the background of underground economic markets, due to the legal provisions, maritime criminal activities turn into an illegal status, but their economic principles for supply and demand are just like the legal markets’ operations. Piracy once helped to equalize the balance and to reduce the tendency toward the monopolization of capital accumulation. When piracy ceased to be a viable method for accumulating capital, other forms of illegality were employed. Pirates are concerned the maximum gains with minimum apprehended probability, so long as there are any risks for severe sanction, they will lower their sails. The difficulty of preventing crime at sea is certainly one of the reasons for the harsh treatment of piracy. The piracy is subject to universal jurisdiction due to its damaging international interests, namely because all nations have an interest in protecting international commerce.
But piracy no longer plays a major role in organized crime; today, the role is filled by goods smuggling and people trafficking. Both are in equally serious situation. Paradoxically, whatever is prohibited, it is at the expense of one group of people for the benefit of another. Some part of the population will always want to either possess or to distribute the prohibited goods. If the policy does not allow the illegal immigrant decriminalized, then the worse illegal immigrant’s quality is, the more the integral problem of illegal immigrant will worsen. Therefore, should amnesty them, but reinforce the border control to increase the arresting rate for trafficking. Owing to their illegal status, the migrants have no choice, but remain on the margins of the economy. It is the problem source that the local employer employs legal immigrant or illegal immigrant illegally. Such employer who seizes the biggest benefit, so should be imposed a penalty when caught employing illegal migrants. Since trafficker’s potential benefit exceeds several times of cost, to expand the law enforcement without aggravated punishment not making his or her illegal net benefit towards zero yet, the deterrent is not very much. The number of human snake per trafficking is the main key variable of snakehead’s crime business operation; the less number, the higher unit cost, so does it not conform to marginal utility. Intentionally the key variable should be considered to increase its cost, namely the increasing punishment for snakehead depends on the number of human snake trafficking.
Though legalization might drop the drugs prices by a wide margin, for long-running the drugs demand does not probably lower, but rise instead. So, regarding the consuming impact, drugs legalization should be deemed the risk experiment. Different from the drug smuggling, the tobacco smuggling is a conduct of tax evasion. As a result of economic analysis, adding taxes will reduce the tobacco demand, even if smuggling will slightly increase, but wholly to say that there is a great benefit for society. Without criminal sanctions, offense of tax evasion only deterred by administration penalty — to pay the taxes one evaded and regulation fines, seeing that tax evasion is hardly discovered and the expected punished probability very low, the risk undertaken is reduced by a wide margin promptly. So such offense should be under criminal sanctions, to pay a price for the tax evaded as the sentencing criteria. The general goods (not contraband) smuggling act is also a conduct of tax evasion. If as the basis of punishment with some offense level, it should rely on the amount of tax evaded. For general deterrence, the average smuggling goods value per case could be considered as such level. Namely the offense level applied for criminal sanction should be settled on “the smuggled goods value” = “the expected punishment” = “the smuggling benefits” equilibrium point.
第一章 緒論 1
第一節 研究動機與研究目的 1
第二節 研究範圍與論文架構 4
第三節 研究方法與文獻探討 4
第四節 研究限制與預期結果 14
第二章 海事刑法概述 17
第一節 海上犯罪 18
第二節 海盜與持械劫船行為 19
第一項 海盜行為的演變 20
第二項 海盜的定義 22
第三項 海盜罪問題的案例 26
第三節 偷渡與國家入出境安全 28
第一項 偷渡行為的定義 29
第二項 偷渡行為的處罰 30
第三項 偷渡行為的實務上問題 33
第四節 懲治走私與其刑罰 34
第一項 走私犯罪行為 34
第二項 懲治走私 35
第三項 走私之刑罰 36
第三章 刑罰的法律經濟分析 39
第一節 犯罪行為的經濟理論 40
第一項 地下經濟與犯罪 41
第二項 有限理性與利益最大化 44
第二節 犯罪制裁的經濟理論 46
第一項 最適犯罪率 47
第二項 最適刑罰 48
第三節 犯罪控制 51
第一項 刑罰的威脅 52
第二項 效率與公正 56
第三項 犯罪層級與量刑表 57
第四章 海盜與海上暴力行為之經濟分析 61
第一節 海上航行安全與經濟問題 61
第一項 海上暴力行為的成因 62
第二項 恐怖主義海盜的威脅 64
第三項 海上暴力行為影響經濟 65
第二節 海盜行為之成本效益分析 66
第一項 海盜與反海盜的經濟思考 66
第二項 海盜與反海盜的理性選擇 69
第三節 海上暴力行為之博奕分析 70
第一項 海盜攻擊供需模型 70
第二項 比較靜態供需均衡 71
第四節 海盜與海上暴力行為修法之探討 72
第一項 海盜罪 72
第二項 海上暴力行為犯罪 79
第五章 海上偷渡之經濟分析 85
第一節 人的非法入出境 85
第一項 偷渡行為的管制與成因 86
第二項 海上偷渡行為的演進 88
第三項 非法移民對經濟影響 90
第二節 偷渡行為之成本效益分析 91
第一項 管制移民之經濟分析 91
第二項 偷渡行為經濟模型分析 96
第三項 偷渡行為實證資料分析 102
第三節 偷渡行為處罰之探討 107
第一項 立法政策的考量 108
第二項 對偷渡者處罰的問題 109
第三項 對偷運者處罰的問題 111
第六章 海上走私之經濟分析 117
第一節 物的非法入出境 117
第一項 走私物品之分析 118
第二項 走私之成因 119
第三項 走私對經濟之影響 121
第二節 毒品走私 123
第一項 毒品走私供需分析 125
第二項 毒品走私博奕 128
第三節 菸草走私 131
第一項 菸草走私經濟模型分析 133
第二項 菸草的走私供需 134
第三項 非完全競爭的菸草走私 136
第四節 走私行為處罰之探討 137
第一項 走私運輸工具之沒入處罰 137
第二項 一定數量的標準 138
第七章 結論 147
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4. 封昌宏,稅捐刑罰之法律經濟分析,月旦法學教室第二四期,2004年10月。
5. 胡天賜,從法律經濟分析觀點探討我國強制執法上拘提管收制度之合憲性,台灣本土法學雜誌47期,2003年6月。
6. 徐孟洲,經濟政策與稅法關係之評析,月旦法學雜誌No. 91,2002年12月。
7. 葛克昌,租稅國家,月旦法學教室第五期,2003年3月。
8. 熊秉元,司法案件、法律經濟學和公共選擇,經社法制論叢,第30期,2002年6月。
9. 熊秉元,寇斯定理和台海兩岸衝突,經社法制論叢,第32期,2003年7月。
10. 劉宏恩,「書本中的法律」(Law in Books)與「事實運作中的法律」(Law in Action),月旦法學雜誌No. 94,2003年3月。
11. 謝文忠,大陸偷渡犯偷渡背景之研究,中央警察大學國境警察學報第二期,2004年2月。
12. 簡資修,一個自主但開放的法學觀點,月旦法學雜誌No. 93,2003年2月。
13. 簡資修,市場、法院或政府:法律實踐的制度面向,月旦法學雜誌No. 107,2004年4月。
14. 簡資修,侵權行為法,月旦法學雜誌No. 95,2003年4月。
15. 簡資修,契約法:法定與意定之均衡,月旦法學雜誌No. 99,2003年8月。
16. 簡資修,嚴格規定與衡平規定:法律實踐的時間維度,月旦法學雜誌No. 102,2003年11月。
17. 蘇義雄,論國際恐怖行動,中興法學,1989年。
(三)論文
1. 任海傳,國家安全與犯罪防制之研究-以查緝毒品犯罪為例,海峽兩岸犯罪問題-關於兩岸毒品犯罪問題與緝毒工作研討會,法務部調查局緝毒中心,2004年11月5日。
2. 宋元明,海關查緝「不法經濟活動」相關問題之研究—以查緝走私為主,中原大學財經法學系碩士論文,2004年7月。
3. 邢啟春,從1996年美國非法移民管制法案探討有關中國大陸人民非法入境來台的相關問題,中山大學大陸研究所碩士論文,2004年6月。
4. 孟維德,海峽兩岸跨境犯罪之實證研究-以人口走私為例,兩岸共同打擊犯罪策略學術研討會,中央警察大學、行政院海岸巡防署,2004年10月14日。
5. 高瑞鍾,論海域執法與漁業發展之關係-以台灣漁船走私分析為中心,海洋大學漁業科學系碩士在職專班碩士,2002年6月。
6. 張忠龍,海峽兩岸犯罪問題之研究-以打擊毒品犯罪為例,淡江大學中國大陸研究所碩士論文,2002年6月。
7. 郭崇武,中國大陸毒品犯罪問題與緝毒工作,海峽兩岸犯罪問題-關於兩岸毒品犯罪問題與緝毒工作研討會,法務部調查局緝毒中心,2004年11月5日。
8. 黃淑芳,國際法上海盜行為之研究—兼論南海海盜問題,政治大學外交所碩士論文,1999年4月。
9. 蔡庭榕,從全球觀點談移民控制問題,警察大學國境警察學系研討會論文集,1998年3月26日。
10. 鄭幼民,兩岸合作打擊毒品犯罪之研析,海峽兩岸犯罪問題-關於兩岸毒品犯罪問題與緝毒工作研討會,法務部調查局緝毒中心,2004年11月5日。
11. 鄧哲偉,我國地下經濟規模變動之研究,中山大學公共事務管理研究所碩士論文,2002年6月。
12. 盧振茂,我國海岸走私行為之經濟分析與管理策略之探討,中山大學公共事務管理研究所碩士論文,2003年7月。
13. 戴宗翰,由國際法論海盜行為防制之研究-兼論亞太區域合作之模式,文化大學政治學研究所碩士論文,2002年6月。
14. 謝漢卿,我國海上走私與海上入出境法律規範之研究,海洋大學海洋法律研究所碩士論文,2004年6月。
15. 簡建章,抗制偷渡之刑法立法研究,中央警察大學入出國及移民法治與政策學術研討會,2003年10月。
二、英文部份
(一)書籍
1. Cheltenham, Edward Elgar, “Encyclopedia of Law and Economics”, Bouckaert, Boudewijn and De Geest, Gerrit (eds.), 2000.
2. Churchill, R. R., and A. V. Lowe, The law of the sea, UK., Manchester University Press, 3rd ed., 1999.
3. Friedman, David D., Price Theory: An Intermediate Text,
South-Western Publishing Co., 1990.
4. Friedman, David D., Law’s Order: What Economics Has to Do with Law and What It Matters, Priceton University Press, 2000.
5. MaCallum, Mark, “The Economic Analysis of Criminal Justice Policy Options, Strategic Responses to Crime Group”, Ministry of Justice, Sep. 1997.
6. Rasmusen, Eric, Games and Information: An Introduction to Game Theory, Basil Blackwell, 4th ed., Dec. 2003.
7. United States Sentencing Commission, Guidelines Manual, Nov. 2004.
(二)期刊
1. Becker, Gary, The Wise Way to Stem Illegal Immigration?, Economic Viewpoint, Business Week Issue 3880, 4/26/2004.
2. Bhattacharyya, Rupa, Establishing a Rule-of-Law International Criminal Justice System, Symposium on Humanitarian Intervention and International Justice, Texas International Law Journal, 1996.
3. Buhler, Phillip A., New Struggle With an Old Menace: Towards a Revised Definition of Maritime Piracy, South Texas College of Law Currents International Trade Law Journal, Vol. IX, No.10, Spring 2001.
4. Constantinople, G. R., Towards a New Definition of Piracy: The Achille Lauro Incident, Virginia Journal of International Law, Vol. 26, 1986.
5. Cressman, Ross, and Jean-Francois Wen and William Morrison, On the Evolutionary Dynamics of Crime, Canadian Journal of Economics, 1998, vol. 31, issue 5, Nov. 1998.
6. Emons, Winand, Escalating Penalties for Repeat Offenders, Diskussionsschriften dp0315, Universitat Bern, Volkswirtschaftliches Institut, Oct. 2003.
7. Emons, Winand, Subgame Perfect Punishment for Repeat Offenders, German Working Papers in Law and Economics: Vol. 2003: Article 4, Oct. 2002.
8. Epstein, Gil S., Labour Market Interactions Between Legal and Illegal Immigrants, Review of Development Economics, vol. 7, issue 1, Feb. 2003.
9. Gathmann, Christina, The Effects of Enforcement on Illegal Markets: Evidence from Migrant Smuggling along the Southwestern Border, IZA Discussion Papers 1004, Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA), 2004.
10. Gutoff, Jonathan M., The Law of Piracy in Popular Culture, Journal of Maritime Law & Commerce Vol. 31, No. 4, Oct. 2000.
11. Kontorovich, Eugene, The Piracy Analogy: Modern Universal Jurisdiction’s Hollow Foundation, Harvard International Law Journal, Vol. 45, Number 1, Winter 2004.
12. Krebs, Christopher P., Drug Control Policy and Smuggling Innovation: a Game-theoretic Analysis, Journal of Drug Issues, Winter 2003.
13. Lando, Henrik, Prevention of Crime and the Optimal Standard of Proof in Criminal Law, LEFIC Working Paper No. 2003-03, Oct. 2003.
14. Morrison, Shona, Researching Heroin Supply, No. 257, Australian Institute of Criminology, Trends & Issues, June 2003.
15. Palda, Filip, A New Look at the Laffer Curve and the Displacement Loss from Tax Evasion, Public Economics 0111006, Economics Working Paper Archive at WUSTL, Aug. 2001.
16. Schneider, Friedrich, and Robert Klinglmair, “Shadow Economies around the World: What Do We Know?”, IZA DP No. 1043, Mar. 2004.
17. Teles, Vladimir K., The Effects of Macroeconomic Policies on Crime, Economics Bulletin, Vol. 11 no. 1, Jan. 2004.
18. Vagg, Jon, “Rough Seas? Contemporary piracy in South East Asia.”, British journal of criminology vol. 35, 1995.
(三)論文
1. Abhyankar, Jayant, An Overview of Piracy Problems: A Global Update, SILS website, Section on Origins and Development,
http://www.sils.org/seminar/1999-piracy-02.htm
2. Bajada, Christopher, and Friedrich Schneider, The Size and Development of the Shadow Economies in the Asia-Pacific, No 2003-01, Economics working papers from Department of Economics, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria.
3. Bates, Clive, and Andy Rowell, “Tobacco Explained...The truth about the tobacco industry...in its own words”, Tobacco Control, WHO Tobacco Control Papers. Paper WHO4, Feb. 2004.
4. Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids, Illegal Pathways to Illegal Profits: The Big Cigarette Companies and International Smuggling, Tobacco Control, Reports on Industry Activity, Paper TFK2, Feb. 2003.
5. Caulkins, Jonathan P., and Robert J. MacCoun, Limited Rationality and the Limits of Supply Reduction, Center for the Study of Law and Society Jurisprudence and Social Policy Program. JSP/Center for the Study of Law and Society Faculty Working Papers. Paper 9, Feb. 2003.
6. Draeseke, Robert, & David E. A. Giles, A Fuzzy Logic Approach to Modelling the Underground Economy, Econometrics Working Papers 9909, Department of Economics, University of Victoria, Jul. 1999.
7. Duncan, Kathryn, “Excesses of Drinking, Sex, Violence, and Religion: Which of These Things Actually is Like the Others? - Disrupting the Boundaries between Pirates and Methodists”,
http://www.hsu.edu/faculty/afo/2000-01/duncan.htm
8. Ellerman, David, Policy Research on Migration and Development, World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3117, August 2003.
9. Estrada, Javier, Crime and punishment: an introductory analysis in a noncooperative framework, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Department of Economics, Jun. 1994. http://web.iese.edu/jestrada/PDF_Files/CRIME.pdf
10. Franckx, Erik, “Multilateralism and International Ocean- Resources Law: Chapter 10. Multilateralism and Marine Issues in the Southeast Atlantic”, Law of the Sea Institute. Conference Proceedings. Paper 2003m, Feb. 2003. http://repositories.cdlib.org/losi/cp/2003m
11. Frey, Bruno S., and Simon Luechinger, Terrorism: Deterrence May Backfire, The Economic Consequences of Global Terrorism, University of Zurich, May 15, 2002.
12. Friebel, Guido, & Sergei Guriev, Smuggling Humans: A Theory of Debt-Financed Migration, IZA DP No 1025, Feb. 2004.
13. Guindon, G. Emmanuel, and Anne-Marie Perucic, and David Boisclair, “Higher Tobacco Prices and Taxes in South East Asia: An Effective Tool to Reduce Tobacco Use, Save Lives and Generate Revenue”, Tobacco Control. WHO Tobacco Control Papers. Paper SEASIA2003, Jun. 2004.
14. Gustafsson, Daniel, “Economic theory and organised crime, a study of trafficking in women for the purpose of sexual exploitation,” Bachelor Thesis. Department of Economics, Lund University, Sweden, May 2003. http://www.nek.lu.se/nekfra/Uppsats/Student/Danielg.pdf
15. Heiner, Kent, “It's the Economy, Stupid!”, MEM Research, Jul. 2002.
16. Hotte, Louis, Valognes, Fabrice and van Ypersele, Tanguy, “Property Crime with Private Protection: A Market-for-offenses Approach”. Centre for Economic Policy Research CEPR Discussion Paper No. 3782, Aug. 2003.
17. Hu, Teh-Wei, and Zhengzhong Mao, Economic Analysis Of Tobacco And Options For Tobacco Control: China Case Study, Tobacco Control. WHO Tobacco Control Papers. Paper CHI2002, Dec. 2002.
18. Johnson, Derek, and Erika Pladdet, An Overview of Current Concerns in Piracy Studies and New Directions for Research, International Institute for Asian Studies and the Centre for Maritime Research, Amsterdam, Aug. 2003.
19. Joossens, Luk, Tobacco smuggling,
http://factsheets.globalink.org/en/smuggling.shtml
20. Kawamura, The OKAZAKI Institute website, Section on Factors Behind the Incidence of Piracies and Armed Robberies,
http://www.glocomnet.or.jp/okazaki-inst/piracy2001/pira2001.kawamura.html
21. Machin, Stephen, and Costas Meghir, Crime and Economic Incentives, the Institute for Fiscal Studies WP00/17, Sep. 2000.
22. Major Tobacco Multinational Implicated In Cigarette Smuggling, Tax Evasion, Documents Show, http://www.public-i.org/story_01_013100.htm
23. Markowitz, Sara, “An Economic Analysis of Alcohol, Drugs, and Violent Crime in the National Crime Victimization Survey,” NBER Working Papers 7982, National Bureau of Economic Research, Inc.
24. Merriman, David, “Understand, Measure, and Combat Tobacco Smuggling”, World Bank Economics of Tobacco Toolkit, Tool 7. Smuggling.
25. Model National Law on Acts of Piracy and Maritime Violence, Final Report of the Joint International Working Group, Comite Maritime Internatioanl, http://www.comitemaritime.org/singapore2/singafter/modelgen/modelgen1.html
26. O’Connell, D. P., The International Law of the Sea, Vol. 2, ed. by A. Shearer, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984.
27. Reyneri, Emilio, Illegal immigration and the underground economiy, National Europe Centre Paper No. 68, University of Sydney.
28. Rodrigue, Jean-Paul, “Straits, Passages and Chokepoints: A Maritime Geostrategy of Petroleum Distribution”, Jul. 2004
29. Schloenhardt, Andreas, Organised Crime and The Business of Migrant Trafficking: An Economic Analysis, Australian Institute of Criminology, Nov. 1999.
30. Sunstein, Cass R., Behavioral Analysis of Law, Chicago Working Papers in Law and Economics, Paper No. 46, Apr. 1997.
31. Sykes, Alan O., The Welfare Economics of Immigration Law: A Theoretical Survey With An Analysis of U.S. Policy, Chicago John M. Olin Law & Economics Working Papers No. 10, Sep. 1992.
32. Taylor, James G., Investigating the Terrorist and Smuggling Games, Alidade Incorporated, April 2004, http://www.alidade.net/2004/search4/ presentations/taylor/Investigating_the_Terrorist_and_Smuggling_Games.ppt
33. The Tobacco Industry Documents: What they are, what they tell us, and how to search them. A practical manual, Tobacco Control. WHO Tobacco Control Papers. Paper DOCS2004, May. 2004.
34. Tobacco Companies Linked To Criminal Organizations In Lucrative Cigarette Smuggling, The International Consortium of Investigative Journalists, Mar. 2001.
35. Tobacco Company Strategies to Undermine Tobacco Control Activities at the World Health Organization, Report of the Committee of Experts on Tobacco Industry Documents, Jul. 2000.
36. Valencia, Mark J, International Co-operation in Anti-Piracy Efforts in Asia: Some Considerations, Report of the Conference on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery at Sea: Charting the Feature in Asia Pacific Waters, The OKAZAKI Institute website, Section on Introduction,
http://www.glocomnet.or.jp/okazaki-inst/doc/0313ValenciaPaper.doc
37. Wilkins, Nick, and Ayda Yurekli and The-wei Hu, Economic Analysis of Tobacco Demand, World Bank Economics of Tobacco Toolkit, Tool 3. Demand Analysis.
38. Willams, K. R., and J. P. Gibbs, and M. L. Ericrson, Public Knowledge of Statutory Penalities: The Extentand Basis of Accurate Perception, Pacific Sociological Review 105, 1980.
39. Zhang, Sheldon, and Ko-lin Chin, Oct. 2002, Characteristics of Chinese Human Smugglers, National Institute of Justice, NIJ Research in Brief, Aug. 2004.
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