臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

本研究藉由有聲思考(think-aloud)以及事後訪談(semi-structured retrospective interview)調查台灣學生熟練英文寫作者之中文及英文寫作過程。目前文獻上廣為人知的寫作模式，皆經由觀察以英語為母語者的寫作過程所建立(Flower & Hayes, 1981; Hayes, 1996; Scandamalia & Bereiter, 1987)。然而，在進行英文寫作時，英語學習者必須克服英語能力不足、不熟悉英文寫作慣用修辭及結構等困難，其英文寫作過程應較以英語為母語者更為複雜(e.g. Leki, 1992; Liou, 1999; Zamel, 1983)。因此，本論文以熟練英文寫作者為對象，探究其使用母語及英語創作同一寫作題目時的寫作過程。研究目的為探究熟練英文寫作者中文及英文的寫作過程，觀察其中文及英文寫作過程中寫作策略運用的雷同及差異，並了解受試者對於中文及英文寫作的認知。
本研究針對三位以英語教學為主修之研究生分別進行兩次的中、英文寫作實驗。受試者先以英文寫作一篇議論性質的文章，間隔至少一個月後，再以中文就同一題目進行寫作。研究對象的中文及英文寫作的有聲思考過程以及其寫作後的事後訪談內容，皆予以錄影及錄音以進行事後的分析與研究。研究結果發現，首先，無論是中文寫作或者是英文寫作，熟練英文寫作者不斷重覆著計劃、寫作及修改的過程。再者，熟練英文寫作者英文寫作策略與中文寫作策略的運用情形相似，皆專注於計劃寫作的內容，專注於確認文章整體的組織架構和語意的傳達勝於文章中片面的語法及修辭，並且於中文及英文寫作上皆使用相同的寫作策略。然而，中文寫作在寫作策略的應用及表現上，仍有別於英文寫作。英文寫作較中文寫作更似「訊息轉換橂式」的寫作過程(Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1987)，且英文寫作也較中文寫作困難。另外，研究結果也發現中文寫作的一大特色為頻繁地藉由重讀已寫下的句子來刺激其思考，而英文寫作的特色在於仰賴母語構思及外語能力表達思維。此外，研究對象在中文及英文寫作慣例、與寫作時應著重的事項上有不同的認知。藉由研究結果，本研究希望能進一步提供建立英語學習者英文寫作模式的基礎，突顯影響英文寫作的因素，以及強調英文寫作教學的重要性。

This study investigated the EFL mature writers’ composing processes in both L1 and L2 by means of think-aloud method and retrospective interview. The existed well-known writing models were established upon the observation of native English speakers’ composing processes (Flower & Hayes, 1981; Hayes, 1996; Scandamalia & Bereiter, 1987). However, the writing processes undergone by L2 writers are argued to be more complicated than those depicted in the models (e.g. Leki, 1992; Liu, 1999; Zamel, 1983). L2 writers needed to face more challenges such as the deficiency of linguistic competence and rhetoric conventions (e.g. Hinds, 1990; Kaplan, 1966, 1971; Odlin, 1989). This study, hence, examined the EFL mature writers’ composing processes when they write on the same topic in both L1 and L2. The purposes are to explore L1 and L2 writing processes undergone by EFL mature writers, detect the similarities and differences of strategy use in L1 and L2 writing, and to realize the participants’ perceptions of L1 and L2 writing.
Three graduate students majoring in Teaching English as a Foreign Language participated in the current study. They were required to compose an expository essay in English and Mandarin at an interval of at least one month. The subjects’ think-aloud writing process and the retrospective interview following each writing task were videotaped and audio-taped for further analysis. The results revealed that firstly, EFL experienced writers are found to undergo a recursive writing process while composing in English and Mandarin. Secondly, EFL experienced writers seem to perform the strategies similarly in both L1 and L2 writing processes. They seem to focus more on planning for the writing task, focus more on global concerns than local concerns and apply the same writing approaches to accomplish the writing tasks. They also appear to activate the same strategies in L1 and L2 writing. On the other hand, L1 writing appears to be different from L2 writing. L2 writing is more like knowledge-transforming than L1 writing. L2 writing is more demanding than L1 writing. Thirdly, L1 writing is characterized by relying frequently on reviewing what has been written to generate more ideas. L2 writing is characterized by using L1 to develop ideas and depending on L2 to transform ideas into words. Finally, the participants hold different perceptions of L1 writing and L2 writing in terms of writing conventions and task emphasis. This study, thus, attempts to provide further insight to the development of EFL writers’ L2 writing models, highlight the potentially influential factors on L2 writing, and pinpoint the importance of writing instruction.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS i
LIST OF TABLES iv
LIST OF FIGURES v
Chinese Abstract vi
English Abstract viii
ONE INTRODUCTIOON 1
Background of the Study 1
Purpose of the Study 5
Research Question 6
Definition of Terms 6
Significance of the Study 8
TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 10
Models of Writing Process 10
Scardamalia and Bereiter’s Writing Model 11
The Knowledge-Telling Model 12
The Knowledge-Transforming Model 14
The Comparison of Two Models 16
Flower and Hayes’ Writing Model 17
Grabe and Kaplan’s Writing Model 24
Summary 27
Characteristics of ESL/EFL Writers 28
Writing Strategies Employed in L2 Writing 28
L2 Writing Product of ESL/EFL Writers 34
L1 Writing Process and Product of ESL/EFL Writers 35
Summary 37 Language Transfer in Language Learning 39
Theoretical Perspectives of Language Transfer 39
L1 Impacts on L2 Writing 41
Developmental Factors 45
Summary 47
THREE METHODOLOGY 49
Subjects 49
Instruments 51
Think-aloud Method 52
Semi-structure Retrospective Interview 53
Writing task 54
Data Collection Procedures 56
Data Analysis 57
The Coding Scheme 57
Data Analysis Procedures 67
FOUR RESULTS 72
Sequences of Strategy Use among Subjects in L1 and L2 Writing 73
Strategy Use by the Subjects in L2 Writing 73
Strategy Use by the Subjects in L1 Writing 74
Total Composing Time in Both Writing Tasks 75
Time Distribution of Strategy Use among Subjects 77
Strategy Use in the English Writing Task 77
Strategy Use in the Mandarin Writing Task 79
English Composing Process vs. Mandarin Composing Process 81
Analysis of the Semi-structured Retrospective Interview 83
The Interview Results after the English Writing Task 84
English Writing Conventions 84
Preparation for Starting to Write 86
Emphasis for Selecting Lexical Expressions 86
Solutions for Running Out of Ideas 87
Solutions for Having Difficulties Figuring Out Lexicons 88
Emphasis While Reviewing the Written Text 88
The Interview Results after the Mandarin Writing Task 89
Mandarin Writing Conventions 89
Preparation for Starting to Write 91
Factors Concerned When Writing Each Paragraph 91
Factors Concerned When Selecting Lexical Expressions 92
Solutions for Running Out of Ideas 93
Emphasis While Reviewing the Written Text 93
FIVE DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSIONS 95
Summary of Findings 95
EFL Experienced Writers’ English and Mandarin Writing Processes 96
Similarities and Differences between English and Mandarin Writing 98
Perception of L1 and L2 Writing 99
Discussions 99
Undergoing a Recursive Writing Process 99
Performing the Strategies Similarly in L1 and L2 Writing 102
Focusing More on Planning for the Writing Task 102
Paying More Attention on Global Concerns than Local Concerns
104
Adopting Different Writing Approaches 105
Employing the Same Strategies in L1 and L2 Writing 108
Differences between L1 and L2 Writing 109
L2 Writing is More like Knowledge-transforming than L1 Writing
109
L2 Writing is More Demanding than L1 Writing 112
Unique Feature of L1 Writing---Relying More on Generating Ideas by Reviewing 113
Unique Feature of L2 Writing---Role of L1 and L2 114
Perceptions of L1 and L2 Writing 117
The Impacts of Developmental Factors on L2 Writing 118
Pedagogical Implications 121
Delimitation of the Study 124
Suggestions for Future Study 126
Conclusions 127
REFERENCE 129
APPENDIXES 138
Appendix A Timelines of Strategy Use by Subject A in L1 and L2 Writing
138
Appendix B Timelines of Strategy Use by Subject B in L1 and L2 Writing
145
Appendix C Timelines of Strategy Use by Subject C in L1 and L2 Writing
152
Appendix D Sample of Coding Results of the English Writing Task 160
Appendix E Sample of Coding Results of the Mandarin Writing Task 182

REFERENCE

Bereiter, C. & Scardamalia, M. (1987). The psychology of written composition. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Burtis, P. J., Bereiter, C., & Scardamalis, M. (1983). The development of planning in writing. In G.. Wells & B. M. Kroll, (Eds), Explorations in the development of writing. (pp. 153-174). New York:Wiley.
Brown, H. D. (2000). Teaching by principles: A interactive approach to language pedagogy (2nd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents.
Bosher, S. (1998). The composing processes of three southeast Asian writers at the post-secondary level: An exploratory study. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7, pp. 205-241
Cavanaugh, J. C. & Perlmutter, M. (1982). Metamemory: A critical examination. Child Development, 53, pp.11-28.
Chen, F. Y. (2003). The EFL Beginning Writers’ Perception and Metacognitive Knowledge of English Writing- A study on the freshman at a university of science and technology. Unpublished Master Thesis at National Yunlin University of Science & Technology.
Chi, C. H. (2004). An Analysis of Text Structures Employed by EFL Beginning Writers. Unpublished Master Thesis at National Yunlin University of Science & Technology.
Chou, H. L. (1989). Contrastive rhetoric: Chinese and English. In The Collection of Papers Presented in the Sixth Conference on English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China. (pp. 251-269) Taipei: Crane.
Connor, U. (2003). Changing currents in contrastive rhetoric: Implications for teaching and research. In Barbara Kroll (Eds.), Exploring the Dynamics of Second Language Writing. Cambridge: (pp. 219-241). Cambridge University Press.
Connor, U. (2002). New Directions in Contrastive Rhetoric. TESOL QUARTERLY, 36(4), pp.493-510.
Connor, U. (1996). Contrastive Rhetoric: cross-cultural aspects of second-language writing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Connor, U. & Kaplan, R. B. (1987). Writing Across Languages: Analysis of L2 Text. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
Conner, U. & McCagg, P. (1983). Cross-Cultural Differences and Perceived Quality in Written Paraphrases of English Expository Prose. Applied Linguistics, 4, 3. pp. 259-268.
Cumming, A. (1989). Writing expertise and second-language proficiency. Language Learning, 39, pp. 81-141.
Devine, J. (1993). The role of metacognition in second language reading and writing. In J. G. Carson & I. Leki (Eds.), Reading in the composition classroom: Second language perspectives. (pp. 105-127). Boston:Heinle and Heinle Publishers, Inc.
Edelsky, C. (1982). Writing in a bilingual program: The relation of L1 and L2 texts. TESOL QUARTERLY, 21, pp. 677-696.
Friendlander, A. (1990) Composing in English: effects of a first language on writing in English as a second language. In Barbara Kroll (Eds.), Second Language Writing: research insights fro the classroom. (pp. 109-125). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Flower, L. & Hayes, J. R. (1981). A Cognitive Process Theory of Writing. College Composition Communication, 32, pp. 356-387.
Faigley, L. & Witte, S. (1981). Analyzing revision. College Composition and Communication, 32, 4, pp. 400-414.
Grabe, W. & Kaplan, R. B. (1996). THEORY & PRACTICE OF WRITING. New York: Longman.
González, Chen & Sanchez. (2001). Cultural Thinking and Discourse Organizational Patterns Influencing Writing Skills in a Chinese English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) Learner. Bilingual Research Journal, 25, 4, pp.417-442.
Hall, C. (1990). Managing the complexity of revising across languages. TESOL QUARTERLY,24, pp.43-60.
Hayes, J. R. (1996). A New Framework for Understanding Cognition and Affect in Writing. In Michale Levy, Sarah Ransdell (Eds.), The Science of Writing: theories, methods, individual differences, and applications. (pp. 1-27). Mahwah, N.J.: L. Erlbum.
Hinds, J. (1987). Reader versus writer responsibility: A new typology. In U. Connor & R. Kaplan (Eds.), Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 texts. (pp. 141-152). Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Hinds, J. (1990). Inductive, Deductive, Quasi-inductive: Expository Writing in Japanese, Korean, Chinese, and Thai. In U. Connor & A. M. Johns (Eds.), Coherence in Writing: Research and Pedagogical Perspectives. (pp. 87-110). Alexandrai, Va: TESOL.
Hirose, K. (2003). Comparing L1 and L2 organizational patterns in the argumentative writing of Japanese EFL students. Journal of Second Language Writing, 12, pp.181-209.
Jacobs, J. E. & Paris, S. G.. (1987). Children’s metacognition about reading: Issues, in definition, measurement, and instruction. Educational Psychologies, 22, p. 255-278.
Jones, S. & Tetroe, J. (1987). Composing in a second language. In S. Matsuhashi (Eds.), Writing in real-time: Modeling production processes. (pp. 34-57). New York: Longman.
Kaplan, R. B. (1966). Cultural thought patterns in intercultural education. Language Learning, 16, pp. 1-20.
Kaplan, R. B. (1987). Cultural thought patterns revisited. In Connor, U. & Kaplan, R. (Eds.), Writing across languages: Analysis of L2 text. (pp. 9-21). Reading, Mass,: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
Kirkpatrick, A. (1997). Traditinal Chinese Text Structures and Their Influence on the Writing in Chinese and English of Contemporary Mainland Chinese Students. Journal of Second Language Writing, 6(3), pp. 23-244.
Kobayashi, H. (1984). Rhetorical Patterns in English and Japanese. TESOL QUARTERLY 18(4), pp.737-758.
Kobayashi, H. & Rinnert, C. (1992). Effects of First Language on Second Language Writing: Translation versus Direct Composition. Language Learning, 42(2), pp. 183-215.
Kong, K. (1998). Are simple business request letters really simple: A comparison of Chinese and English business request letters. Text, 18, pp.103-141.
Krapels, A. R. (1990). An overview of second language writing process research. In B. Kroll (Eds.), Second Language Writing: research insights fro the classroom. (pp. 37-56). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Krashen, S. (1984). Writing: Research, theory and application. Oxford: Pergamon Institute of English.
Krashen, S. (1984). Writing, research, theory, and applications. Oxford : Pergamon Institute of English.
Krashen, S. & Lee, S. Y. (in press). Competence in Foreign Language Writing: Progress and Lacunae. Literacy Across Cultures. http://www.sdkrashen.com/articles/progressinl2/01.html
Kubota, R. (1998). An investigation of L1-L2 transfer in writing among Japanese university students: implications for contrastive rhetoric. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7(1), pp. 69-100.
Kuo, W. H. (1999). A Case Study of L1-L2 Transfer of Rhetorical Patterns of Three University Students in Taiwan. Unpublished Master Thesis at National Tsing Hwa University.
Kuo, S. L. & Tseng, S. D. (1987). Writing as a Cognitive Process: A Protocol Analysis. In The Collection of Papers Presented in the Third Conference on English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China. (pp. 263-280). Taipei: Crane.
Lay, N. (1982). Composing processes of adult ESL learners. TESOL QUARTERLY, 16(3), pp. 406.
Lee, I. C. & You, Y. L. (2005). The Writing Strategies EFL Writers Need. In The Proceedings of 2005 International Conference and Workshop on TEFL & Applied Linguistics. (pp.274-283). Taipei: Crane.
Leki, I. (1992). L2 composing : strategies and perceptions. Understanding ESL Writers: A guide for teachers. (pp. 76-87). Portsmouth: Byonton/Cook.
Leki, I (1992) The Contrastive Rhetoric. Understanding ESL Writers: A guide for teachers. (pp. 88-104). Portsmouth: Byonton/Cook.
Liu, C. K. (1997). Locations of L1-L2 Translation that Occur in English Writing. In the Proceedings of the Sixth International Symposium of English Teaching. (pp. 401-416). Taipei: Crane.
Liu, C. K. (1999). Identifying the writing processes a college student has to undergo: The generating model. The Proceedings of the 16th Conference on English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China. Taipei, 16, pp. 303-312.
Mohan & Lo (1985). Academic Writing and Chinese Students: Transfer and Developmental Factors. TESOL QUARTERLY, 19(3), pp. 515-534.
Matalene, C. (1985). Contrastive rhetoric: An American writing teacher in China. College English, 47(8), pp. 789-807.
Maynard, S. K. (1996). Presentation of one’s view in Japanese newspaper columns: Commentary strategies and sequencing. Text, 16, pp. 391-421.
Nisbett, R. E. & Wilson, C. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psychological Review, 84, pp. 231-259.
Nold, E. W. (1981). Revising. In Carl Frederiksen and Joseph Dominic (Eds.) Writing: process, development, and communication. (pp. 67-80). Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawarence Erlbaum Associates.
Odlin, T. (1989). Language Transfer: Cross-linguistic influence in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Perl, S. (1980). Understanding composing. College Composition and Communication, 31(4), pp.389-401.
Paris, S. G. & Winograd, P. (1990). How metacognition can promote academic learning and instruction. In B. F. Jones & L. Idol (Eds.), Dimensions of thinking and cognitive instruction. (pp. 15-51). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Raimes, A. (1985). What unskilled EFL students do as they write: A classroom study of composing. TESOL QUARTERLY, 19 (2), pp. 229-258.
Raimes, A. (1987). Language Proficiency, Writing Ability, and Composing Strategies: A Study of ESL College Student Writers. Language Learning, 37(3), pp.439-468.
Raimes, A. (1991). Out of the Woods: Emerging Traditions in the Teaching of Writing. TESOL QUARTERLY, 25, pp. 407-430.
Richards, J. (1980). Conversation. TESOL QUARTERLY, 14, pp. 413-432.
Sasaki, M. (2000). Toward an Empirical Model of EFL Writing Processes: An Exploratory Study. Journal of Second Language Writing, 9 (3), pp. 259-291.
Scardamalia, M. & Bereiter, C. (1987). Knowledge telling and knowledge transforming in written composition. In S. Rosenberg (Ed.), Advances in applied psycholinguistics: reading, writing, and language learning. (pp. 142-175). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.142-175.
Schraw, G. & Moshman, D. (1995). Metacognitive theories. Educational Psychology Review, 7 (4), pp. 351-371.
Schy, R. W. (1981). Toward a developmental theory of writing. In Carl Frederiksen and Joseph Dominic (Eds.) Writing: process, development, and communication. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawarence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 119-132.
Scriber, S. & Cole, M. (1981) The Psychology of Literacy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Silva, T. (1993). Toward and understanding of the distinct nature of L2 writings: The ESL research and its implications. TESOL QUARTERLY, 27(4), pp. 657-677.
Silva, T. (1990). ESL composition instruction: developments, issues, and directions. In B. Kroll (Eds.), Second Language Writing: research insights fro the classroom. (pp.11-23). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Thomas, J. (1983). Cross-cultural pragmatic failure. Applied Linguistics, 4, pp. 91-112.
Wang, W. Y. & Wen, Q. F. (2002). L1 use in the L2 composing process: An exploratory study of 16 Chinese EFL writers. Journal of Second Language Writing, 11, pp. 225-246.
Winfield, F. & Barnes-Felfeli, P. (1982). The effects of familiar and unfamiliar cultural context on foreign language composition. Modern Language Journal, 66, pp. 373-378.
Wolfersberger, M. (2003). L1 to L2 Writing Process and Strategy Transfer: A Look at Lower Proficiency Writers. TESL-EJ, 7. Http://www-writing.berkeley.edu/TESL-EJ/eje16/a6.html
Yang, P. S. (2005). Exploring EFL Immature Writers’ L1 and L2 Writing Processes. Unpublished Master Thesis at National Yunlin University of Science & Technology.
You , Y. L. (2000). Language Transfer and logical thinking in EFL writing. In the Proceedings of the Seventeenth Conference of English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China. (pp. 108-120).Taipei: Crane.
You, Y. L. & Lee, I. C. & Joe, S. G. (2005). Comparing EFL Mature Writers’ L1 and L2 Writing Processes. In the Proceedings of the Twenty-second Conference of English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China. (pp. 368-378). Taipei: Crane.
You, Y. L., & Joe, S. G.. (2003). How to Teach EFL Writing Metacognitively. In The Selected Papers of the Twelfth International Symposium on English Teaching. (pp. 626-637). Taipei: Crane.
You , Y. L. (2001). To write well is to think clearly: Suggestions for teaching EFL writers how to write logically. In the Proceedings of the Eighteenth Conference of English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China. (pp. 391-406). Taipei: Crane.
You , Y. L. (2000). Language Transfer and logical thinking in EFL writing. In the Proceedings of the Seventeenth Conference of English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China. (pp. 108-120). Taipei: Crane.
Zamel, V. (1983). The Composing Processes of Advanced ESL Students: Six Case Studies. TESOL QUARTERLY, 17, 2, pp. 165-187.
Zamel, V. (1982). Writing: the process of discovering meaning. TESOL QUARTERLY, 16, 2, pp. 195-209.
Zhu, Y. (1997). An analysis of structural moves in Chinese sales letters. Text, 17, pp. 543-566.