臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

本論文研究探討臺灣學生美式英語母音發音與感知的聲學表現，及兩者間的關連；並從優選理論與第二語言習得之音韻限制來討論聲學實驗結果與闡述語言學習過程。
實驗研究對象為六十位臺灣籍英語學習者及二十位以美式英語為母語之外籍人士。這六十位學生分成兩組：三十位大學英語系學生(又稱「高英語成就組」)及三十位高中生(又稱「低英語成就組」)。這兩組學生參與問卷調查、英語能力測驗、母音發音實驗及母音感知實驗。至於英語為母語之外籍人士僅參與英語母音發音及感知實驗。
根據聲學實驗結果及優選理論分析，本研究共有四個主要發現。首先，在英語母音發音方面，臺灣學生受「類化效應」影響程度較大；類母音的發音聲學離異值大於新母音的離異值。低英語成就組受較多第一語言干擾，表現較近於其第一語言發音；相較之下，高英語成就組受第一語言干擾較少，有近於母語人士的英語發音表現。此外，母音長短對臺灣學生而言，是分辨英語緊母音與鬆母音的重要依據。第二，在英語母音感知方面，受「類化效應」影響程度較小；類母音的感知聲學離異值小於新母音的離異值。低英語成就組比高英語成就組受較多第一語言干擾，表現較近於其第一語言的感知表現，與母語人士的離異程度較大。第三，在發音與感知歧異現象方面，臺灣學生在母音發音與感知間的聲學離異值較母語人士大，顯示外語學習者語音表現呈現較大的歧異性。此外，臺灣學生英語母音發音的聲學離異值大於感知離異值，透露出臺灣學生的母音感知優於發音，且較近母語人士之表現。第四，優選理論確實能夠適切分析聲學研究結果及語言學習相關議題。第二語言習得與第一語言音韻限制、通用制約、有標制約和制約重排等因素密切相關。
根據以上實驗發現與討論，本論文提出數項教學啟示。第一，語言學習者應該注意及了解母語與目標語間的顯著差異，如緊母音與鬆母音之別和後母音異化限制，將有助於降低第一語言之干擾、並有效克服發音困難。第二，除了學習母音之長短音，臺灣學生應學習其他英語母音的聲學特質，如共振峰、肌肉鬆緊、舌位高低與前後等，以幫助英語母音之分辨。第三，在三種音標系統，DJ系統、KK系統及Trager Smith系統中，Trager Smith系統能真實反映出緊母音語尾的滑音特質；因此，Trager Smith系統對於英語緊母音與鬆母音之教學，將較有助益。第四，未來發音教學課程可應用電腦語音聲學軟體，著重口說與聽力訓練，並加強問題母音最小配對練習。最後，從優選理論的角度來分析，臺灣學生發音及感知的困難主要來自第一語言的音韻限制、通用制約和有標制約，語言學習需將目前中介語制約排序適當重組，以期達成近母語人士語音表現的終極目標。

This thesis aimed to examine the English vowel production and perception by Taiwanese EFL learners and to unveil the possible interaction in between. Also, an OT(Optimality Theory)-based discussion was provided to interpret the main results in the acoustic experiments and to elaborate the re-ranking processing in learnability.
Sixty Taiwanese EFL (English as a foreign language) students (TS) and twenty native speakers of American English (NS) were recruited for the current research. These Taiwanese EFL learners were composed of two subgroups: thirty college English-majors (HEFL) and thirty senior high school students (LEFL). Both groups took part in the questionnaire survey, the general English proficiency test, the production experiment and the perception experiment. As for the native speakers of English, they merely did the English vowel production task and the English vowel perception task.
According to the statistical results and OT-based discussion, the following are major findings related to the four research questions. Firstly, greater “similarity effect” was identified in TS English vowel production; the acoustic deviance among similar vowels was greater than that among new vowels. Under greater L1 interference, LEFL learners’ English pronunciation approximated closer to their L1 counterpart pronunciation. HEFL, on the contrary, produced English vowels in a more native-like way. Additionally, vowel duration offered an important cue for TS to differentiate English tense-lax vowel contrasts. Secondly, less “similarity effect” was found in TS English vowel perception; the acoustic deviance among similar vowels was less than that among new vowels. LEFL experienced greater L1 influence and diverged to a greater extent from NS English perception than HEFL. Thirdly, with regard to within-group production-perception asymmetry, TS were less consistent in these two speech tasks than NS, indicating that TS showed greater asymmetry in speech tasks. Concerning the TS cross-group asymmetry between vowel production and perception, both HEFL and LEFL were less dispersed in the perception task than in the production task. Fourthly, Optimality Theory could adequately interpret the acoustic findings and the issue of learnability. Second language acquisition was closely associated with such linguistic factors as L1 filter, universal constraints, markedness constraints and constraint re-ranking.
Based on the research findings and discussion, there were several primary pedagogical implications. To start with, if language learners could be directed to the significant differences between their native language and the target language, for example, in tense-lax vowel distinction and in the dissmilatory constraints of backness, it would help lower the possible L1 interference and overcome the pronunciation problems. Secondly, besides the duration cue, other phonetic properties of English vowels should be introduced to Taiwanese EFL learners, for instance, formants, muscle tension, tongue height and backness, all of which might be beneficial in English vowel discrimination. Thirdly, among three kinds of phonetic symbols, the Daniel Jones system (DJ), the Kenyon-knott system (KK) or the Trager Smith system, the Trager Smith system truly reflected the phonetic nature of tense vowels with the final gliding; therefore, the Trager Smith system would be of greater help in teaching English tense-lax contrasts. Fourthly, concerning the future pronunciation courses, computer-assisted acoustic software could be adopted to offer speaking and listening practice and to focus on the confusing vowel contrasts with minimal pairs. Finally, from the perspective of OT, since many production or perception difficulties for Taiwanese EFL learners resulted from the L1 phonological transfer and universal as well as markedness constraints, learning a language involved an ongoing process, during which the set of interlanguage constraints should be adequately re-ranked to achieve the ultimate goal of native-like speech performance.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I
CHINESE ABSTRACT III
ENGLISH ABSTRACT V
LISTS OF TABLES X
LISTS OF FIGURES XII
ABBREVIATION OF TERMS XIV

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 1
1.2 RESEARCH MOTIVATION AND ASSUMPTIONS 4
1.3 PURPOSES AND RESEARCH QUESTIONS OF THE STUDY 10
1.4 HYPOTHESES OF THE STUDY 11
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 14
1.6 DEFINITION OF TERMS 17
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 20
2.1 ACQUISITION OF PHONOLOGY 21
2.2 PHONOLOGICAL COMPARISON OF VOWELS AMONG SOUTHERN MIN, MANDARIN AND ENGLISH 26
2.2.1 Tenseness Feature in Vowels 27
2.2.2 Backness Feature in Diphthongs 30
2.3 PRODUCTION AND PERCEPTION OF VOWELS 32
2.3.1 Acoustic Analysis of Vowel Production 33
2.3.2 Acoustic Analysis of Vowel Perception 39
2.3.3 Research on American English Vowel Production and Perception 41
2.3.4 Research on Mandarin Speakers’ Performance of English Vowels 46
2.4 LEARNABILITY IN THE FRAMEWORK OF OPTIMALITY THEORY 48
2.4.1 Basic Concepts of OT 49
2.4.2 Learnability and Language Acquisition 51
2.4.3 Recent Research on Learnability and OT 54
2.5 SUMMARY 67
CHAPTER THREE METHOD 69
3.1 SUBJECTS 69
3.2 INSTRUMENTS AND MATERIALS 71
3.2.1 The Production Experiment 72
3.2.2 The Perception Experiment 74
3.2.3 Questionnaire 80
3.3 PROCEDURES OF DATA COLLECTION 81
3.3.1 Data Collection of Questionnaire 81
3.3.2 Data Collection of the Production and Perception Experiments 82
3.4 DATA ANALYSIS 84
3.4.1 Acoustic Analysis of Vowel Production 84
3.4.2 Acoustic Analysis of Vowel Perception 96
3.4.3 Production-Perception Asymmetry 97
3.4.4 An OT-Based Account of Taiwanese EFL Learners’ English Production and Perception 98
CHAPTER FOUR VOWEL PRODUCTION: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 100
4.1 ACOUSTIC DIMENSIONS OF ENGLISH VOWEL PRODUCTION 100
4.2 ERRORS IN CROSS-LANGUAGE DIPHTHONG PRODUCTION 107
4.3 INTERLANGUAGE PRODUCTION BY TAIWANESE EFL LEARNERS 114
4.3.1 Productive Acoustic Deviance Between Similar and New Vowels 114
4.3.2 Interlanguage Production of Similar Vowels 117
4.3.3 Productive Acoustic Deviance Among Similar Vowels 125
4.4 GENERAL DISCUSSION ON PRODUCTION 127
CHAPTER FIVE VOWEL PERCEPTION: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
131
5.1 ACOUSTIC DIMENSIONS OF ENGLISH VOWEL PERCEPTION 131
5.2 ERRORS IN CROSS-LANGUAGE DIPHTHONG PERCEPTION 135
5.3 INTERLANGUAGE PERCEPTION BY TAIWANESE EFL LEARNERS 140
5.3.1 Perceptual Acoustic Deviance Between Similar and New Vowels 141
5.3.2 Interlanguage Perception of Similar Vowels 143
5.3.3 Perceptual Acoustic Deviance Among Similar Vowels 148
5.4 PRODUCTION-PERCEPTION ASYMMETRY 151
5.4.1 Intra-Group Production-Perception Asymmetry 151
5.4.2 Cross-Group Production-Perception Asymmetry 154
5.5 GENERAL DISCUSSION ON PERCEPTION AND ASYMMETRY 157
CHAPTER SIX CONSTRAINTS AS FILTERS IN SLA 161
6.1 PHONOLOGICAL CONSTRAINTS FOR INTERLANGUAGE BY TS 163
6.1.1 Phonological Constraints for Interlanguage Production by TS 163
6.1.2 Phonological Constraints for Interlanguage Perception by TS 172
6.2 PHONETIC CONSTRAINTS FOR INTERLANGUAGE BY TS 183
6.2.1 Phonetic Constraints for Interlanguage Production by TS 184
6.2.2 Phonetic Constraints for Interlanguage Perception by TS 188
6.3 GENERAL DISCUSSION: INTERLANGUAGE PRODUCTION VS. INTERLANGUAGE PERCEPTION 194
CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSIONS 199
7.1 SUMMARY OF MAIN FINDINGS 199
7.2 PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS 202
7.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY 207
REFERENCES 210
APPENDIX A THE PRODUCTION EXPERIMENT 223
APPENDIX B THE PERCEPTION EXPERIMENT 224
APPENDIX C EXAMPLE PAGES IN “MAGIC OF VOWEL” 230
APPENDIX D QUESTIONNAIRE 237
APPENDIX E RAW DATA OF NORMALIZED ACOUSTIC DEVIANCE 238

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