臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

吾人對番茄汁加工產品，通常要求其能保持有一定之粘度，抗氧化能力與誘人的紅色。然而，果膠酵素(PE，E.C.3.1.1.11)會經由影響膠體或微細果肉的沉澱，進而影響這些品質特性。本研究主要在探討冷破碎與熱破碎蕃茄汁的最適製造條件，及其PE酵素活性，抗氧化成分、活性及色澤之變化。在冷破碎果汁製造步驟中，是以HCl調整果汁到pH2或3，經1或2小時後，再用NaOH調回原始pH。以熱破碎製造果汁則是將產品以80，90或100°C殺菁1，3或5分鐘，再以熱水均質及滅菌(80°C，25分)。結果顯示，酸化處理為pH2，1小時者(pH2-1H)，可以降低PE活性而提高冷破碎果汁之黏度，並可顯著增加其重要營養素(特別是番茄紅素、多酚和維生素C)、抗氧化力(清除DPPH自由基、FICA和還原能力)及紅色(a值與彩度)。故pH2-1H處理為冷破碎蕃茄汁製造最好的條件。至於將蕃茄在100°C殺菁1分鐘，可得到最低的PE活性，最高的a值、彩度、抗氧化成分(番茄紅素和總酚類)及抗氧化活性(DPPH清除和鐵螯合能力)。亦即就熱破碎番茄汁而言，於100°C殺菁1分鐘可得到最佳顏色與營養價值的產品。前述處理之冷破碎與熱破碎番茄汁皆表現出較BHA和α-tocopherol更佳的抗氧化力。最後，將前述番茄汁置於不同溫度下儲存，由其黏度，色澤及抗氧化能力之變化觀察其儲存穩定性。結果發現，凡置於25°C者比置於4°C者有較明顯的品質劣變，但9週之後，即使儲存於25°C者，其色澤及抗氧化力仍符合商業需求。

The tomato processing industry aims to maintain viscosity, antioxidant capacity and attractive red color of tomato juice. However, the pectin esterase (PE, E.C.3.1.1.11) activity affects these characteristics, due to precipitation of colloids and very fine pieces of pulp in suspension. This study focused on the PE activity, antioxidant content and activity as well as color of cold and hot break tomato juices. HCl conducted acidification of cold break tomato juice to pH 2 or 3. Then, juice pH was readjusted to its initial value by adding NaOH after 1 or 2 h. On the other hand, tomatoes were blanched at 80, 90 or 100ºC for 1, 3 or 5 min before homogenization in hot water. The tomato juices were pasteurized at 80 ºC for 25 min. Our results indicated that acidification at pH 2 during 1 h (pH 2 – 1H) enhanced the viscosity of cold break tomato juice by decreasing its pectin esterase activity. In addition, the acidification treatment increased significantly (P < 0.05) the main nutritional factors (lycopene, polyphenols and vitamin C specially) and health-promoting properties (DPPH radical scavenging activity, ferrous ion chelating ability and reducing power), as well as the color parameters (a* and chroma values) of cold break tomato juice. The treatment pH 2 – 1H could be the best condition for processing cold break tomato juice. Furthermore, blanching tomatoes at 100ºC for 1 min was the best treatment in providing the lowest pectin esterase activity, the highest a* and chroma values, antioxidant contents (lycopene and total phenolics) and antioxidant capacity (DPPH activity and chelating ability). These results indicated that heat treatment could be used as a tool for providing attractive color and enhancing nutritional value and health-promoting properties of hot break tomato juice by blanching tomatoes at 100ºC for 1 min. Moreover, the acidified cold break tomato juice as the hot break tomato juice exhibited better antioxidant capacity than BHA and α-tocopherol. Finally, the shelf life of the juices was investigated, with the consideration of the stability of their viscosity, color and antioxidant with storage time and temperature. For all the characteristics studied, variations with storage time were more marked at 25ºC than at 4ºC. However, after 9 weeks of storage at 4ºC as at 25ºC, the color as well as the antioxidant properties of the tomato juices remained commercially satisfactory.

ABSTRACT (CHINESE)………………………………………………
ABSTRACT (ENGLISH)……...……………………………………….
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………….
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………….
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………...
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………….
1. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………….......
2. LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………
2.1. Free radicals and chronic diseases……………..……………......
2.2. Antioxidants………………………… …………….....................
2.2.1. Definition…………………………………………………
2.2.2. Antioxidant capacity…………….......................................
2.3. Tomato……………………………………..………………........
2.3.1. Tomato as source of antioxidants………………………..
2.3.1.1. Lycopene content of tomato………………….......
2.3.1.2. Vitamin C content of tomato……………………..
2.3.1.3. Total phenolics content of tomato………………..
2.3.2. Effects of processing on antioxidant capacity of
tomato…………………………………………………….
2.3.3. Health benefits of tomato…………………………………
2.3.3.1. Cancer…………………………………………….
2.3.3.2. Cardiovascular disease…………………………....
2.3.3.3. Photoprotective potential…………………………
2.3.3.4. Effect of lycopene on gap junctional
communication…………………………………....
2.3.4. Tomato juice……………………………………………...
2.3.4.1. Definition…………………………………………
2.3.4.2. Tomato juice making in a factory...........................
2.3.4.3. Pectin and pectinases……………………………..
2.3.4.4. Decrease of viscosity……………………………..
2.3.4.5. Cloud loss………………………………………...
2.3.4.6. Thermal inactivation of pectinases……………….
3. MATERIELS AND METHODS……………………………….........
3.1. Samples preparation……………………………………………..
3.1.1. Acidification in cold break tomato juice………………….
3.1.2. Blanching in hot break tomato juice……………………...
3.1.3. Storage……………………………………………………
3.2. Enzyme stability………………………………………………...
3.2.1. Viscosity…………………………………………………
3.2.2. Pectin esterase activity…………………………………...
3.2.2.1. Extraction of pectin esterase……………………...
3.2.2.2. Determination of PE activity………………..........
3.2.3. Degree of esterification…………………………………..
3.3. Color measurement……………………………………………...
3.4. Antioxidant compounds………………………………………....
3.4.1. Lycopene content………………………………………...
3.4.1.1. Extraction of lycopene…………………………...
3.4.1.2. Determination of lycopene content………………
3.4.2. Total phenolics content…………………………………..
3.4.3. Vitamin C content………………………………………..
3.4.3.1. Extraction of vitamin C…………………………...
3.4.3.2. Determination of vitamin C……………………...
3.5. Antioxidant capacity…………………………………………….
3.5.1. DPPH radical scavenging activity……………………….
3.5.2. Ferrous ion chelating ability……………………………..
3.5.3. Reducing power………………………………………….
3.6. Statistical analysis ……………………………………………...
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION……………………………………..
4.1. Effects of acidification on cold break tomato juice…………….
4.1.1. Effects on pectin esterase stability and color………….....
4.1.2. Effects on antioxidant compounds…………………….....
4.1.2.1. Effects on lycopene content………………………
4.1.2.2. Effects on total phenolics content………………...
4.1.2.3. Effects on vitamin C content……………………...
4.1.3. Effects on antioxidant capacity…………………………..
4.1.3.1. DPPH Free radical scavenging activity………......
4.1.3.2. Ferrous ion chelating ability……………………...
4.1.3.3. Reducing power…………………………………..
4.1.4. Summary…………………………………………………
4.2. Effects of blanching on hot break tomato juice………...............
4.2.1. Effects on pectin esterase stability and color………….....
4.2.2. Effects on antioxidant compounds…………………….....
4.2.2.1. Effects on lycopene content………………………
4.2.2.2. Effects on total phenolics content………………...
4.2.2.3. Effects on vitamin C content……………………...
4.2.3. Effects on antioxidant capacity…………………………..
4.2.3.1. DPPH free radical scavenging activity……….......
4.2.3.2. Ferrous ion chelating ability……………………...
4.2.3.3. Reducing power…………………………………..
4.2.4. Summary…………………………………………………
4.3. Effects of storage on cold and hot break tomato juices...............
4.3.1. Effects on pectin esterase stability and color………….....
4.3.2. Effects on antioxidant compounds…………………….....
4.3.3. Effects on antioxidant capacity……………………..........
4.3.4. Summary…………………………………………………
5. CONCLUSIONS AND FURTHER WORK…………………………
REFERENCES………………………………………………………….
BIO-SKETCH OF AUTHOR…………………………………………..
I
III
V
VII
X
XI
1
3
3
4
4
4
5
5
6
7
8

8
10
11
11
12

12
13
13
14
14
15
15
16
17
17
19
19
21
25
25
25
25
25
26
27
27
27
28
28
30
32
32
32
32
33
33
34
34
35
35
35
41
41
42
42
45
45
46
46
47
47
47
54
54
55
56
58
58
58
59
59
60
60
65
68
71
73
75
90

Abushita, A. A., H. G. Daood, and P. A. Biacs (2000) Change in carotenoids and antioxidant vitamins in tomato as a function of varietal and technological factors. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 48: 2075-2081.
Albrecht, J. A. (1993) Ascorbic and retention in lettuce. Journal of Food Quality. 16: 311-316.
Anese, M., L. Manzocco, M. C. Nicoli, and C. R. Lerici (1999) Antioxidant properties of tomato juice as affected by heating. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 79: 750-754.
Anese, M., P. Falcone, V. Fogliano, M. C. Nicoli, and R. Missini (2002) Effects of equivalent thermal treatments on the color and the antioxidant activity of tomato purees. Journal of Food Science. 67: 3442-3446.
Anon, E. (1992) FAO Yearbook Production. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. 46: 140-141.
Anon, E. (1993) Tomato juice. P.721-722. In: Edwad E. Judge and Sons (eds.) The almanac of the canning, freezing, preserving industries. Westminster, M. D.
Arena, E., B. Fallico, and E. Maccarone (1999) Retention of antioxidant activity in minimally processed mandarin and Satsuma fruits. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und Technologie. 35: 344-347.
Arias, R., T. C. Lee, L. Logendra, and H. Janes (2000) Correlation of lycopene measured by HPLC with the L, a, b color readings of a hydroponic tomato and the relationship of maturity with color and lycopene content. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 48: 1697-1702.
Balaban, M. O., A. G. Arreola, M. Marshall, A. Peplow, C. I. Wei, and J. Cornell (1991) Inactivation of pectin esterase in orange juice by supercritical carbon dioxide. Journal of Food Science. 56: 743-746.
Balestrieri, C., D. Castaldo, A. Giovane, L. Quagliuolo, and L. Servillo (1990) A glycoprotein inhibitor of pectin methyl esterase in Kiwi fruit (Actinidia chinensis). European Journal of Biochemistry. 193: 183-187.
Bates, R. P., and J. A. Koburger (1974) High-temperature-short-time processing of carrot juice. Proceedings of the Florida State Horticultural Society. 87: 245-249.
Beecher, G. R. (1998) Nutrient content of tomatoes and tomato products, nutrient content of tomatoes. Proceedings of the Society of Experimental Biology and Medicine. 218: 98-100.
Bertram, J. S., A. Pung, M. Churley, T. J. Kappock, L. R. Wilkins, and R. V. Cooney (1991) Diverse carotenoids protect against chemically induced neoplastic transformation. Carcinogenesis. 12: 671-178.
Bramley, P. M. (2000) Is lycopene beneficial to heath? Photochemistry. 54: 223-236.
Calvo, C., and L. Duran (1997) Effects of ascorbic acid retention on juice color and pigment stability in blood orange juice during refrigerated storage. Food Research International. 35: 753-759.
Cao, G., E. Sofic, and R. L. Prior (1996) Antioxidant capacity of tea and common vegetables. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 44: 3426-3431.
Castaldo, D., L. Servillo, R. Loiudice, C. Balestrieri, B. Laratta, L. Quagliuolo, and A. Giovane (1996) The detection of residual pectin methyl esterase activity in pasteurized tomato juice. International Journal of Food Science and Technology. 31: 313-318.
Chang, C. H., H. Y. Lin, C. Y. Chang, and Y. C. Liu (2005) Comparisons on antioxidant properties of fresh, freeze-dried and hot-air-dried tomatoes. Journal of Food Engineering. 71: 331-428.
Chen, B. H., H. Y. Peng, and H. E. Chen (1995) Changes of carotenoids, color, and vitamin A contents during processing of carrot juice. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 43: 1912-1918.
Chen, R. Y., J. J. Wu, M. J. Tsai, and M. S. Liu (2000) Effects of storage and thermal treatment on antioxidant activity of tomato fruits. Taiwanese Journal of Agricultural Chemistry and Food Sciences. 30: 353-360.
Christensen, T. M. I. E., J. E. Nielsen, J. D. Kreiberg, P. Rasmussen, and J. D. Mikkelsen (1998) Pectin methyl esterase from orange fruit: characterization and localization by in-situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. Planta. 206: 493-503.
Clinton, S. K. (1998) Lycopene: chemistry, biology, and implications for human health and disease. Nutritional Review. 56: 35-51.
Davey, M. W., M. Van Montagu, D. Inze, M. Sanmartin, A. Kanellis, N. Smirnoff, I. J. J. Benzie, J. J. Strain, D. Favell, and J. Fletcher (2000) Plant L-ascorbic acid: chemistry, function, metabolism, bioavailability and effects of processing. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 80: 825-860.
Davidek, J., J. Velisek, and J. Pokorny (1990) Chemical Changes during food processing: Ascorbic and dehydroascorbic acid (vitamin C). Czechoslovak Medical Press. 4: 110-123.
Del Caro, A., A. Piga, V. Vacca, and M. Agabbio (2004) Changes of flavonoids, vitamin C and antioxidant capacity in minimally processed citrus segments and juices during storage. Food Chemistry. 84: 99-105
De Sio, F., G. Dipollina, G. Villari, R. Loiudice, B. Laratta, and D. Castaldo (1995) Thermal resistance of pectin methylesterase in tomato juice. Food Chemistry. 52: 135-138.
Decker, E. A., and B. Welch (1990) Role of ferritin as a lipid oxidation catalyst in muscle food. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 38: 674-677.
Del Pozo-Insfran, D., C. H. Brenes, S. O. S. Saldivar, and S. T. Talcott (2006) Polyphenolic and antioxidant content of white and blue corn (Zea mays L.) products. Food Research International. 39: 696-703.
Dewanto, V., X. Wu, K. K. Adom, and R. H. Liu (2002) Thermal processing enhances the nutritional value of tomatoes by increasing total antioxidant activity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 50: 3010-3014.
Dilley, D. R. (1970) Enzymes. P. 179-204. In: A. C. Hulme (eds.) The biochemistry of fruit and their products. Academic Press. New York, USA.
Eskin, N. A. M., and D. S. Robinson (2001) Food shelf life stability: chemical, biochemical and microbiological changes. CRC Press. 175-202.
Esteve, M. J., A. Frigola, C. Rodrigo, and D. Rodrigo (2005) Effect of storage period under variable conditions on the chemica and physical composition and colour of Spanish refrigerated orange juices. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 43: 1413-1422.
Fachin, D., A. Van Loey, B. Ly Nguyen, and I. Verlent (2003) Comparative study of the inactivation kinetics of pectinmethylesterase in tomato juice and purified form. Biothecnology Progress. 18: 739-744.
Fallico, B., M. C. Lanza, E. Maccarone, C. N. Asmundo, and P. Rapisarda (1996) Role of hydroxycinnamic acids and vinylphenols in the flavor alteration of blood orange juices. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 44: 2654-2657.
Fogliano, V., V. Verde, G. Randazzo, and A. Ritieni (1999) Method for measuring antioxidant activity and its application to monitoring the antioxidant capacity of wines. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 47: 1035-1040.
Fox, B. A., and A. G. Cameron (1995) Vitamins. P. 236-242. In: J.W. Arrowsmith Ltd (eds.) Food Science Nutrition and Health. Bristol, UK.
Foyer, C. H. (1993) Ascorbic acid. P. 31-58. In: R. G. Alscher and J. L. Hess (eds.) Antioxidants in higher plants. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
Gahler, S., K. Otto, and V. Böhm (2003) Alterations of vitamin C, total phenolics and antioxidant capacity as affected by processing tomatoes to different products. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 51: 7962-7968.
Garcia, F. A., P. Butz, and B. Tauscher (2001) Effects of high pressure processing on carotenoid extractability, glucose diffusion, and water binding of tomato puree (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). Journal of Food Science. 66: 1032-1038.
George, B., C. Kaur, D. S. Khurdiya, and H. C. Kapoor (2004) Antioxidants in tomato (Lycopersium esculentum) as function of genotype. Food Chemistry. 84: 45-51.
Giovanelli, G., V. Lavelli, C. Peri, and S. Nobili (1999) Variation in antioxidant compounds of tomato during vine and post-harvest ripening. Journal of the Science for Food and Agriculture. 79: 1583-1588.
Giovannucci, E. (1999) Based products, lycopene, and cancer: review of epidemiologic literature. Journal of National Cancer Institute. 91: 317-331.
Gomez, R., R. Costa, M. Amo, A. Alvarruiz, M. Picazo, and J. E. Pardo (2001) Physicochemical and colorimetric evaluation of local varieties of tomato grown in South-East Spain. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 81: 1101-1105.
Gordon, E. A., Y. Sekine, N. Watanabe, and D. M. Barrett (2002) Thermal inactivation of Pectin Methylesterase, Polygalacturonase, and Peroxidase Tomato Juice. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 50: 6153-6159.
Gordon, M. (1990) The mechanism of antioxidant action in vitro. P. 1-18. In: B. J. F. Hudson (eds.) Food antioxidants. New York, USA.
Gould, W. A. (1992) Tomato juice. P. 211. In: M D and C T I publications (eds.) Tomato production, processing and technology. Baltimore, USA.
Goulinet, S., and M. J. Chapman (1997) Plasma LDL and HDL subspecies are heterogenous in particle content of tocopherols and oxygenated and hydrocarbon carotenoids. Relevance to oxidative resistance and atherogenesis. Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis, Vascular Biology. 17: 786-796.
Grasdalen, H., A. K. Andersenand, and B. Larsen (1996) NMR spectroscopy studies of the action pattern of tomato pectinesterase: generation of block structure in pectin by a multiple-attack mechanism. Carbohydrate Research.289:05-114.
Graziani, G., R. Pernice, S. Lanzuise, P. Vitaglione, M. Anese, and V. Fogliano (2003) Effect of peeling and heating on carotenoid isomer separation content and antioxidant activity of tomato and tomato virgin-olive oil systems. European Journal of Food Research and Technology. 216: 116-121.
Gregory, J. F. (1996) Vitamin. P. 531-616. In: O. R. Fennema (eds.) Food chemistry. Marcel Dekker. New York, USA.
Guo, J. T., H. L. Lee, S. Chiang, F. Lin, and C. Chang (2001) Antioxidant properties of the extract from different parts of broccoli in Taiwan. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis. 9 (2): 96-101.
Hayes, W., and E. J. Smith (1998) The production and quality of tomato concentrates. Critical Review of Food Science and Nutrition. 38: 537-564.
Herrmann, K. (1998) Inhaltsstoffe der tomaten I. die industrielle obst. Gemüseverwertung. 5: 146-154.
Johnson, E. J. (2000) The role of lycopene in health and disease. Nutritional and Clinical Care. 3: 35-43.
Kabasakalis, V., D. Siopidou, and E. Moshatou (2000) Ascorbic acid content of commercial fruit juices and its rate of loss upon storage. Food Chemistry. 70: 325-328.
Kalamaki, M. S., L.T. A. Powell, K. Struijs, J. M. Labavitch, D. S. Reid, and A. B. Bennett (2003) Transgenic overexpression of expansin influences particle size distribution and improves viscosity of tomato juice and paste. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 51: 7465-7471.
Klimczak, I., M. Malecka, M. Szlachta, and A. Gliszczynska-Swiglo (2006) Effect of storage on the content of polyphenols, vitamin C and antioxidant activity of orange juices. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. In Press.
Klipstein-Grobusch, K., L. J. Launer, J. M. Geleijnse, H. Boeing, A. Hofman, and J. C. M. Witterman (2000) Serum carotenoids and atherosclerosis. The Rotterdam Study. Atherosclerosis. 148: 49-56.
Krinsky, N. I. (1989) Antioxidant functions of carotenoids. Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 7: 617-635.
Lam Quoc, A., M. Mondor, F. Lamarche, D. Ippersiel, L. Bazinet, and J. Makhlouf (2006) Effect of a combination of electrodialysis with bipolar membranes and mild heat treatment on the browning and opalescence stability of cloudy apple juice. Food Research International. In Press.
Laratta, B., G. Fasanaro, D. De Sio, and D. Castaldo (1995) Thermal inactivation of pectin methylesterase in tomato puree: implications on cloud stability. Process Biochemistry. 30: 251-259.
Lavelli, V., C. Peri, and A. Rizzolo (2000) Antioxidant activity of tomato products as studied by model reactions using xanthine oxidase, myeloperoxidase and copper-induced lipid peroxidation. Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry. 48: 1442-1448.
Lee, H. S. (2001) Characterization of carotenoids in juice of red navel orange (Cara Cara). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 49: 2563-2568.
Lee, H. S., and G. A. Coates (1999) Vitamin C in frozen, fresh squeezed, unpasteurized, polyethylene-bottled orange juice: a storage study. Food Chemistry. 65: 165-168.
Lehucher-Michel, M. P., J. F. Lesgards, O. Delubac, P. Stocker, P. Durand, and M. Prost (2001) Oxidative stress and human disease. Current knowledge and perspectives for prevention. Presse Med. 30: 1076-1081.
Leonardi, C., P. Ambrosino, F. Esposito, and V. Fogliano (2000) Antioxidant activity and carotenoid and tomatine contents in different typologies of fresh consumption tomatoes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 48: 4723-4727.
Lin, C. H., and B. H. Chen (2005) Stability of carotenoids in tomato juice during storage. Food Chemistry. 90: 837-846.
Lisiewska, Z., and W. Kmiecik (2000) Effect of storage period and temperature on the chemical composition and organoleptic quality of frozen tomato cubes. Food Chemistry. 70: 167-173.
Lozano, P., A. Majnjon, F. Romojaro, and J. Iborra (1988) Properties of pectolytic enzymes covalently bound to nylon for apricot juice clarification. Process Biochemistry. 23: 75-78.
Maillard, M. N., M. H. Soum, P. Boivia, and C. Berset (1996) Antioxidant activity of barley and malt: relationship with phenolic content. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und-Technologie. 3: 238-244.
Master, A. M., B. Krebbers, S. W. Hoogerwerf, R. Moezellaar, M. M. M. Tomassen, and R. W. van den Berg (2003) Combined high-pressure and thermal treatments for processing of tomato puree: evaluation of microbial inactivation and quality parameters. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies. 4: 377-385.
Miller, N. J., and C. A. Rice-Evans (1997) Factors influencing the antioxidant activity determined by the ABTS+ radical cation assay. Free Radical Research. 26: 195-199.
Nguyen, M. L., and S. J. Schwartz (1999) Lycopene: chemical and biological properties. Food Technology. 53 (2): 38-45.
Offord, E. A., J. C. Gauthier, O. Avanti, C. Scaletta, and F. Runge (2002) Photoprotective potential of lycopene, β-carotene, vitamin E, vitamin C and carnosic acid in UVA-irradiated human skin fibroblast. Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 32: 1293-1303.
Oliver, M. (1967) Occurrence in Foods. P. 357. In: Sebrell Jr., W.H. and R.S. (eds.) The Vitamins: chemistry, physiology, pathology, methods. Academic Press, New York, USA.
Owusu-Yaw, J., M. R. Marshall, J. A. Koburger, and C. I. Wei (1988) Low pH inactivation of pectinesterase in single strength orange juice. Journal of Food Science. 53: 504-507.
Oyaizu, M. (1988) Antioxidative activities of browning products of glucosamine fractionated by organic-solvent and thin-layer chromatography. Journal of the Japanese Society for Food Science and Technology. 35: 771-775.
Parr, A. J., and G. P. Bolwell (2000) Phenols in the plant and in man. The potential for possible nutritional enhancement of the by modifying the phenols content or profile. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 80: 985-1012.
Pellegrini, N., P. Simonetti, C. Gardana, O. Brenna, F. Brighenti, and P. G. Pietta (2000) Polyphenol content and total antioxidant activity of vini novella (young red wines). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 48: 732-735.
Peterson, D. M. (2001) Oat antioxidants. Journal of Cereal Science. 33: 115-129.
Pilnik, W., and A. G. J. Voragen (1993) Pectin esterase. P. 363-393. In: Visser, J. and Voragen, A. G. J. (eds.) Enzymes in food processing. Academic Press, London, UK.
Prakash, A. (2001) Antioxidant activity. Analytical Progress Press. 19 (2): 133-141.
Ramesh, M., W. Wolf, D. Tevini, and G. Jung (1999) Studies on inert gas processing of vegetables. Journal of Process Engineering. 40: 199-205.
Rao, A., and S. Agarwal (2000) Role of antioxidant lycopene in cancer and heart disease. Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 19: 563-569.
Rao, M. A., and H. J. Cooley (1992) Rheology of tomato pastes in steady dynamic shear. Journal of Texture Studies. 12: 521-538.
Ribaya-Mercado, J. D., M. Garmyn, B. A. Gilchrest, and R. M. Russel (1995) Skin lycopene is destroyed preferentially over β-carotene during ultraviolet irradiation in humans. Journal of Nutrition. 125: 1854- 1858.
Robards, K., P. D. Prenzler, G. Tucker, P. Swatsitang, and W. Glover (1999) Phenolic compounds and their role in oxidative process in fruits. Food Chemistry. 66: 401-436.
Rodriguez-Amaya, D. B. (1997) Carotenoids and food preparation: the retention of provitamin A carotenoids in prepared, processed and stored foods. P. 121. USAID, OMNI Project.
Rovere, P., L. Sandei, A. Colombi, M. Munari, G. Ghiretti, G. Carpi, and G. Allaglio (1997) Effects of high-pressure treatment on chopped tomatoes. Industria Conserve. 72: 3-12.
Sahlin, E., G. P. Savage, and C. E. Lister (2004) Investigation of the antioxidant properties of tomatoes after processing. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 17: 635-647.
Schmid, F. X. (1992) Kinetics of unfolding and refolding of single-domain proteins. P. 197-241. In: T. E. Creighton (eds.) Protein folding. W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, USA.
Schols, H. A., and A. G. J. Voragen (1996) Complex pectins: structure elucidation using enzymes. P. 3-19. In: Visser, J. and Voragen, A. G. J. (eds.) Progress in Biotechnology, Pectins and Pectinases. Elsevier, Amsterdam, Netherlands.
Servili M., R. Selvaggini, A. Taticchi, A. L. Belgliomini, and G. F. Montedoro (2000) Relationships between the volatile compounds evaluated by solid phase microextraction and the thermal treatment of tomato juice: optimization of the blanching parameters. Food Chemistry. 71: 407-415.
Servillo, L., L. Quagliuolo, M. Coppola, B. Laratta, D. Castaldo, and A. Giovane (1993) Pectin methylesterase inhibitor: purification by affinity chromatography and evidence of enzyme complex formation. Paper presented at 21st International Fruit Juice Symposium, 4-7 April, Budapest, Hungary.
Sesso, H. D., S. Liu, M. Gaziano, and J. E. Buring (2003) Dietary lycopene, tomato based food products and cardiovascular disease in women. Journal of Nutrition. 133: 2336-2341.
Shahidi, F., and P. K. J. P. D. Wanasundara (1992) Phenolic antioxidants. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 32: 67-71.
Sharma, S. K., and M. Le Maguer (1996) Kinetics of lycopene degradation in tomato pulp solids under different processing and storage conditions. Food Research International. 29: 309-315.
Shi, J., and M. Le Maguer (2000) Lycopene in tomatoes: chemical and physical properties affected by food processing. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 40: 1-42.
Shimada, K., K. Fujikawa, K. Yahara, and T. Nakamura (1992) Antioxidative properties of xanthan on the autoxidation of soybean oil in cyclodextrin emulsion. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 40: 945-948.
Sims, C. A., M. O. Balaban, and R. F. Matthews (1993) Optimization of carrot juice color and cloud stability. Journal of Food Science. 58: 1129-1131.
Singthong, J., S. Ningsanond, S. W. Cui, S. Ningsanond, and H. D. Goff (2004) Structural characterization, degree of esterification and some gelling properties of Krueo Ma Noy (Cissampelos pareira) pectin. Carbohydrate Polymers. 58: 391-400.
Smith, H. R. (1961) The consistency of tomato catsup. Canning Trade. 54: 4-17.
Smith, H. R. (1997) Processing Vegetables: Sciences and Technology. P. 398.Technomic Publishing Company, Inc.
Stahl, W., and H. Sies (1992) Uptake of lycopene and its geometrical isomers is greater from eat-processed than unprocessed tomato juice in humans. Journal of Nutrition. 122: 2161-2166.
Stahl, W., and H. Sies (1996) Lycopene: a biologically important carotenoid for humans? Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 336: 1-9.
Stahl, W., U. Heinrich, S. Wiseman, O. Eichler, H. Sies, and H. Tronnier (2001) Dietary tomato paste protects against ultraviolet light-induced erythema in humans. Journal of Nutrition. 131: 1449-1451.
Stewart, A. J., S. Brozonnet, W. Mullen, G. I. Jenkins, M. E. J. Lean, and A. Crozier (2000) Occurrence of flavonols in tomatoes and tomato-based products. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 48: 2663-2669.
Sundquist, A., K. Briviba, and H. Sies (1994) Singlet oxygen quenching of carotenoids. Methods Enzymology. 234: 384-388.
Takeoka, G. R., L. Dao, S. Flessa, D. M. Gillespie, W. T. Jewell, B. Huebner, D. Bertow, and S. E. Ebler (2001) Processing effects on lycopene content and antioxidant activity of tomatoes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 49: 3713-3717.
Tang, G., X. D. Wang, R. M. Russel, and N. I. Krinsky (1991) Characterization of β-apo-13-carotenone and β-apo-14’-carotenal as enzymatic products of the excentric cleavage of β-carotene. Biochemistry. 30: 9829-9834.
Tapiero, H., D. M. Townsend, and K. D. Tew (2004) The role of carotenoids in the prevention of human pathologies. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy. 58: 100-110.
Thakur, B. R., R. K. Singh, and P. E. Nelson (1996) Quality attributes of processed tomato products: a review. Food Review International. 12: 375-401.
Tijskens, L. M. M., K. W. Waldron, A. Ng, L. Ingham, and C. van Dijk (1997) The kinetics of pectin methyl esterase in potatoes and carrot during blanching. Journal of Food Engineering. 34: 371-385.
Tijskens, L. M. M., P. S. Rodis, M. L. A. T. M. Hertog, N. Proxenia, and C. van Dijk (1999) Activity of pectin methyl esterase during blanching of peaches. Journal of Food Engineering. 39: 167-177.
Toor, R. K., and G. P. Savage (2006) Effect of semi-drying on the antioxidant components of tomatoes. Food Chemistry. 94: 90-97.
Trosko, J. E., and C. C. Chang (2001) Mechanism of up-regulated gap junctional intercellular communication during chemoprevention and chemotherapy of cancer. Mutation Research. 480/481: 219-229.
Tsai, P. J., Y. Y. Hsieh, and T. C. Huang (2000) Effects of sugars on the texture of roselle preserves. Taiwanese Journal of Agricultural Chemistry and Food Science. 38 (5): 412-417.
Umme, A., B. A. Asbi, A. H. Junainah, B. Jumilah, and Y. Salmah (1999) Characteristics of soursop natural puree and determination of optimum condition for pasteurization. Food Chemistry. 58: 119-124.
Van Boekl, M. A. J. S., and W. M. F. Jongen (1997) Product quality and food processing: how to quantify the healthiness of a product. Cancer Letters. 114: 65-59.
Van het Hof, K. H., C. E. West, J. A. Weststrate, and J. G. A. J. Hautvast (2000) Dietary factors that affect the bioavailability of carotenoids. Journal of Nutrition. 130: 503-506.
Vercet, A., P. Lopez, and J. Burgos (1999) Inactivation of heat-resistant pectin methylesterase from orange by manothermosonication. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry. 47: 432-437.
Vercet, A., C. Sanchez, J. Burgos, L. Montanes, and P. L. Buesa (2002) The effects of manothermosonication of tomato pectic enzymes and tomato paste rheological properties. Journal of Food Engineering. 53: 273-278.
Versteeg, C. (1979) Pectinesterase from the orange fruit: their purification, general characteristics and juice cloud destabilizing properties. Ph. D. thesis. 278 p, Wagenigen Germany: Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation.
Versteeg, C., F. M. Rombouts, and W. Pilnik (1978) Purification and some characteristics of two pectin esterase isoenzymes from orange. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und-Technologie. 11: 267-274.
Whitaker, J. R. (1984) Pectic substances, pectic enzymes and haze formation in fruit juices. Enzyme Microbiology Technology. 6: 341-349.
Wong, D. W. S. (1995) Tailoring enzyme: structures and functions. P. 7-125. In: D. W. S. Wong (eds.) Food enzymes: structure and mechanism. Chapman & Hall, New York, USA.
Yamasaki, H., M. Mesnil, Y. Omori, N. Mironov, and V. Krutovskikh (1995) Intercellular communication and cancerogenesis. Mutation Research. 333: 181-188.
Yeom, H. W., C. B. Streaker, Q. H. Zhang, and D. B. Min (2000) Effects of pulsed electric fields on the quality of orange juice and comparison with heat pasteurization. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry. 48: 4597-4605.
Zanoni, B., E. Pagliarini, G. Giovanelli, and V. Lavelli (2003) Modelling the effects of thermal sterilization on the quality of tomato puree. Journal of Food Engineering. 56: 203-206.
Zerdin, K., M. L. Rooney, and J. Vermu (2003) The vitamin C content of orange juice packed in an oxygen scavenger material. Food Chemistry. 82: 387-395.
Zimmerman, M. (2002) The colorful carotenoid lycopene beats out even beta-carotene at fighting free radicals. Taste for Life magazine. August. P. 100.
Brunswick Laboratories (2003) Free radicals, the environment of health. Retrieved on November 2, 2004 at URL: http://www.nutraceuticalsworld.com/March042.htm.
FDA (1993) Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved on February 17, 2005 at URL: http://www.fda.gov/po/indexes/93.html.
Kimball. J. W. (2004) Enzyme Kinetics. Retrieved on December 10, 2004 at URL: http://www.users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/E/EnzymeKinetics.html.
RDA (2003) Recommended dietary allowance of nutrient elements. Retrieved on June 22, 2005 at URL: hhtp://www.naturalhub.com/natural_food_guide_fruit_vitamin_C.html.
USDA (2001) Nutrient database for standard reference. Release 24, December, NDB No. 11529. Retrieved on May 17, 2005 at URL: www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/cgi-bin/nut_search.pl.
World Processing Tomato Council (2002) Retrieved on June 6, 2005 at URL: http://www.wptc.to.