臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

Aulacaspis yasumatsui Takagi介殼蟲為入侵種危害台東蘇鐵 Cycas taitungensis Shen等種類至瀕臨絕種地步。本研究探討 2003年由泰國引進的Cybocephalus nipponicus之生物特性及生態，以其防治A. yasumatsui。了解C. nipponicus生命參數，如生命週期、生殖力、性別比例和壽命，根據這些資料製成生命表，並且研究捕食者及被捕食者之間的關係，如功能反應及互相干擾，還有田間釋放C. nipponicus 之前與之後A. yasumatsui 族群變化。雌 C. nipponicus 成蟲將卵產在雌介殼蟲成蟲之殼下方或是雄蟲之空殼。卵之大小為長0.41 ± 0.02公釐及寬0.19 ± 0.01公釐。第一齡幼蟲的頭部平均寬為0.164 ± 0.008公釐、第二齡約0.238 ± 0.013公釐而第三齡約0.33 ± 0.015公釐。其卵期在26 ± 1 ºC及相對溼度 60 ± 10 %下平均約6.24 ± 1.45天。幼蟲需經過三齡期後化蛹，在26 ºC下需約9.47 ± 2.9天，而其蛹期約15.05 ± 1.27天。在17 ºC及相對溼度 60 ± 10 %下，卵期是26 ºC時的 2倍。在17 ºC時，幼蟲期及蛹期的平均成長時間比26 ºC長。在29 ºC及相對溼度 60 ± 10 %下，蟲卵期、幼蟲期及蛹期比起在 26 ºC短。C. nipponicus 的生命期，依長短漸減排列： (17 ºC) 62天> (26 ºC) 31天 > (29 ºC) 24天。其雌雄成蟲的壽命相當接近，約為81天。雌C. nipponicus 的產卵前期為5.18天且其平均生殖率為109.47 ± 68顆卵。雌雄性別比率為0.8: 1。生命表分析指出幼蟲期的死亡率最高。其淨生殖率(Ro)為46.53、平均世代時間(T)為62.05天、期限增殖率為(r)為 0.06及內在增殖率(λ)為1.06。在功能反應中，雌雄C. nipponicus成蟲在不同密度及不同蟲期之A. yasumatsui顯示出雌蟲在各溫度下比雄蟲捕食更多的介殼蟲。C. nipponicus成蟲較少捕食老熟的介殼蟲。溫度會影響雌雄C. nipponicus捕食不同時期介殼蟲的每日平均數量。第一齡幼蟲是C. nipponicus成蟲最偏好的被捕食者，接著是雄蛹。一般而言，第二型功能反應曲線證明C. nipponicus捕食A. yasumatsui之第一齡幼蟲及雄蛹。在 26 ºC，雄 C. nipponicus 與雌蟲之處理時間分別為0.015天及 0.016天。在17 ºC時，雌C. nipponicus的處理時間(0.033天)比雄蟲長(0.023天)，此顯示雌蟲比雄蟲對低溫較敏感；但在29 ºC時，雌C. nipponicus 的處理時間為0.008天，比雄蟲(0.013天)短，顯示雄蟲對高溫較敏感。A. yasumatsui在形態上不同的介殼蟲或許在基因上有改變所造成，對將來防治台東蘇鐵C. taitungenesis上有所幫助。

Cycad aulacaspis scale, Aulacaspis yasumatsui Takagi, is an invasive species, which threatens a native cycad, Cycas taitungensis Shen et al., to a verge of extinction. This study was to obtain basic data on the biology and ecology of Cybocephalus nipponicus, introduced from Thailand in 2003 to aid in the control of A. yasumatsui. Studies were conducted to determine life history parameters; including life cycle, fecundity, sex ratio and longevity, of C. nipponicus and using these parameters to develop its life table. Also studied were the predator-prey interactions, such as functional response and mutual interference, and the population fluctuations of A. yasumatsui before and after the release of C. nipponicus in the field. A female C. nipponicus laid its eggs under the scale cover of a mature female scale or in an empty male armor. The eggs measured 0.41 ± 0.02 mm in length and 0.19 ± 0.01 mm in width. The mean width of the head capsules of 1st instar larva was 0.164 ± 0.008 mm, 2nd instar larva was 0.238 ± 0.013 mm and 3rd instar larva was 0.33 ± 0.015 mm. At 26 ± 1 ºC and 60 ± 10 % RH, the average incubation period of eggs of C. nipponicus was 6.24 ± 1.45 days and its larval period, consisting of three instars, was 9.47 ± 2.9 days. Its pupal period was 15.05 ± 1.27 days. At 17 ºC and 60 ± 10 % RH, the egg stage was twice as long as that of 26 ºC. The mean development time of its larval and pupal periods was longer at 17 ºC than at 26 ºC. At 29 ºC and 60 ± 10 % RH, the durations of its egg, larval and pupal periods were considerably shorter than that of 26 ºC. The duration of the life cycle of C. nipponicus, in a descending order, was 62 days (17 ºC) > 31 days (26 ºC) > 24 days (29 ºC). The longevities of an adult male and female C. nipponicus were not significantly different at about 81 days. The pre-ovipositon period of a female C. nipponicus was 5.18 days and its mean fecundity was 109.47 ± 68 eggs. The sex ratio of females to males was 0.8: 1. Analysis of its life table revealed that the highest mortality occurred in the larval stage. Its net reproduction rate (Ro) was 46.53; its mean generation time (T) 62.05 days; its intrinsic rate of increase (r) 0.06 and its finite rate of increase (λ) 1.06. The functional response of male and female C. nipponicus adults at different densities and stages of A. yasumatsui showed that the females consumed more cycad scales than the males at all the temperatures tested. C. nipponicus adults consumed less cycad scales of older stages. Temperature significantly influenced the mean daily number of cycad scales of different stages consumed by both males and females C. nipponicus. The 1st instar larvae were the preferred prey of C. nipponicus adults followed by the male pupa. In general, a Type II functional response was demonstrated by C. nipponicus adults in preying on 1st instar larvae and male pupae of A. yasumatsui. At 26 ºC, the handling time for a male and a female C. nipponicus adult was 0.015 days and 0.016 days, respectively. At 17 ºC, the handling time for a female C. nipponicus was longer (0.033 days) than that of a male (0.023 days), indicating that the female was more sensitive to the low temperatures than the male. However, at 29 ºC, the handling time of the female was 0.008 days, which was shorter than that of 0.013 days for the males, indicating that the males were more sensitive to high temperatures than the females. The discovery of a morphologically different A. yasumatsui indicated that it may be undergoing a genetic change, which could be important to the efforts being made to place it under control and to minimize its damage to C. taitungenesis in Taiwan.

ABSTRACT (CHINESE)………………………………………………
ABSTRACT (ENGLISH)………………………………………………
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………….
TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………….
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………...
LIST OF FIGURES………………...…………………………………..
1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………...
1.1 Background………………………………………………………
1.2 Objectives………………………………………………………...
2. LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………………
2.1 General Information of Armored Scale Insects………………….
2.1.1 Classification………………………………………………...
2.1.2 Family: Diaspididae……………………………………….....
2.1.3 Identification of Adult Females………………………...........
2.1.4 Identification of Adult Males.………………………………..
2.1.5 The Scale Cover……………………………………………...
2.1.6 Sexual Dimorphism………………………………………….
2.2 The Pest, Aulacaspis yasumatsui Takagi………………………...
2.2.1 Global Distribution…………………………………………..
2.2.2 Economic Importance………………………………………..
2.2.3 Pathways of Spread…………………………………………..
2.2.4 Host Range…………………………………………………...
2.2.5 External Morphology of Adult Female and Male……………
2.2.6 Biology……………………………………………………….
2.2.7 Damage to Cycads…………………………………………...
2.3 Management of A. yasumatsui…………………………………...
2.3.1 Chemical Control…………………………………………….
2.3.2 Biological Control……………………………………….......
2.3.2.1 Insects………………………………………………….
2.3.2.2 Mites…………………………………………………...
2.3.2.3 Fungi…………………………………………………...
2.3.3 Mechanical and Cultural Practices………………………......
2.3.4 Integrated Control………………………………………........
2.3.4.1 Locus of Infection…………………………...................
2.3.4.2 Climate/Seasonality………………………………........
2.3.4.3 Integrating Biological, Mechanical and
Cultural Control………………………………………..
2.4 The Predator, Cybocephalus nipponicus Endrody-Younga……...
2.4.1 Family: Cybocephalidae……………………………………..
2.4.2 Biology……………………………………………………....
2.5 Prey and Predator Interactions…………………………………...
2.5.1 Predation as an Exploitation Strategy………………………..
2.5.2 Component Analysis of Predation………………...................
2.5.3 Disk Equation and Functional Responses……………………
2.6 Predator and Prey Population Dynamics………………………..
2.6.1 Characteristics of a General Predator………………………..
2.6.2 Predation Models…………………………………………….
2.6.2.1 Lotka-Volterra Equations……………………………...
2.6.2.2 Nicholson-Bailey Equation…………………………….
2.6.2.3 Hasell-Varley Equation………………………………...
2.7 Life Table Study ………………………………………………...
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS…………………………………….
3.1 Estimation of Population Density of A. yasumatsui ……………
3.2 Survey for Natural Enemies of A. yasumatsui…………………...
3.3 Mass Rearing of A. yasumatsui and C. nipponicus.......................
3.4 Life History of A. yasumatsui……………………………………
3.4.1 Identification of Immature and Adult Stages………………..
3.4.2 Development time of Immature and Adult Stages…………
3.4.2.1 Egg Stage……………………………………………...
3.4.2.2 Larval and Adult Stages……………………………….
3.5 Life History of C. nipponicus……………………........................
3.6 Laboratory Life Table of C. nipponicus………………………….
3.6.1 Sex Ratio……………………………………………………..
3.6.2 Fecundity……………………………………………..............
3.6.3 Longevity…………………………………………………….
3.6.4 Net Reproduction Rate (Ro)………………………………….
3.6.5 Mean Generation Time (T)…………………………………..
3.6.6 Finite Rate of Increase (λ)……………………………………
3.6.7 Intrinsic Rate of Increase (r)…………………………............
3.7 Predation of Adult C. nipponicus………………...........................
3.7.1 Functional Response………………………………………....
3.7.2 Mutual Interference…………………………………………..
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION……………………………………..
4.1 Estimation of Population Density of A. yasumatsui …………....
4.2 Field Survey for Natural Enemies of A. yasumatsui…………….
4.3 Life History of A. yasumatsui…………………………………...
4.3.1 Identifying the Immature and Adult Stages……………….....
4.3.2 Development time of Immature and Adult Stages…………...
4.4 Life History of C. nipponicus…………………………………....
4.5 Life Table Study of C. nipponicus………………………….........
4.5.1 Sex Ratio……………………………......................................
4.5.2 Fecundity……………………………………………………..
4.5.3 Longevity…………………………………………….............
4.5.4 Net Reproduction Rate (Ro)………………………………….
4.5.5 Mean Generation Time (T)…………………………………..
4.5.6 Intrinsic Rate of Increase (r)…………………………............
4.5.7 Finite Rate of Increase (λ)……………………………............
4.6 Prey- Predator Interaction……………………………………….
4.6.1 Functional Response………………………………………...
4.6.2 Mutual Interference………………………………………….

4.6.3 Regulation of A. yasumatsui by Increasing Densities of C.
nipponicus…………………............................................................
5. CONCLUSIONS …………………………………………………….
REFERENCES………………………………………………………….
APPENDIX……………………………………………………………..
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