臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

本研究之目的在於探討紙面閱讀與超文本閱讀之不同，藉由四個測驗：閱讀理解測驗、語意差別測驗、句法差別測試和自動表現測驗，以及超文本閱讀問卷。紙面閱讀是由上至下方直線性的閱讀，然而超文本閱讀可以藉由任何一個超連結到不同之網頁，且無止盡的延伸。這種非線性形式改變了閱讀的方式，對外語學習者來說，他們在超文本閱讀上的表現為何？所遇到之困難點為何？本研究的受實驗者是九十二位就讀技術學院應用外語系的學生。根據他們的全民英檢的成績分程度高及程度低兩組。實驗結果顯示出，學生在四種測驗上電腦的成績表現都比紙面差，對程度較高和程度低者皆是如此。研究結果發現學生傾向將在紙面的閱讀方式帶到超文本閱讀上。超文本所呈現的型式影響學生的閱讀能力，電腦的顏色和影像並沒有引起學生閱讀的興趣，且學生對超文本閱讀顯示出負面的態度。在閱讀超文本最主要的困難點在於看電腦時引發的眼睛酸痛、容易跳行、不能在電腦上畫線或做記號等。本研究提出可改善的方式，並提出超文本閱讀之正面性，供語言學習網頁設計者和應用電腦於教學中的老師參考。希冀藉紙面閱讀與超文本閱讀之結合應用，讓英語學習和教學發揮最大之功效。

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of reading printed text and hypertext on EFL learners’ reading comprehension, especially focusing on reading skills, semantic and syntactic differences and automatic performance. When reading printed text, readers start from the top left-hand corner and finish at the bottom right-hand corner. Reading in this way is a linear activity as readers’ eyes go through the text line by line. When reading hypertext, readers can click a hyperlink to find out certain information. When they click the hyperlink, they are taken to a different web page. How does reading hypertext affect EFL learners’ reading comprehension? What are the difficulties they encounter? The participants in this study were ninety-two Taiwanese students studying at two different institutes of technology. They were divided into two groups according to their scores in General English Proficiency Test (GEPT) Simulated Test: Higher Proficiency Learners (HPL) and Lower Proficiency Learners (LPL). The results showed that participants got higher scores in the reading comprehension test, semantic identification test, syntactic identification test, and automatic performance test on paper than they did when reading hypertext. The results suggest that (a) participants transferred the way they read on paper to the way they read on computer screens, (b) text presented as hypertext affected the way participants read, (c) the merits of hypertext, such as colored pictures, abundant information, did not stimulate participants’ motivation, and (d) participants expressed a negative attitude toward reading on hypertext. The major difficulties participants experienced when reading on hypertext were: they experienced eyestrain, they skipped lines, and they could not take notes or underline any words or text on computer screens. Findings and conclusions from this study may serve as implications and suggestions for web designers and for teachers who intend to introduce hypertext in the language classroom. The ultimate purpose was to explore the effectiveness of using printed text and hypertext in language learning and teaching.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ENGLISH ABSTRACT …………………………………….. i
CHINESE ABSTRACT …………………………………………….. ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………………………………… iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………………………… iv
LIST OF TABLES …………………………………………….. viii
LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………… x

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION …………………………………. 1
　 1.1 Background and Motivation ……………………………1
　 1.2 Research Questions ………………………………… 5
　 1.3 Purposes of the Study …………………………… 6
　 1.4 Significance of the Study ……………………… 6
　 1.5 Definition of Terms ……………………………… 7
　 1.6 Organization of the Study …………………………9

CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE …………… 12
　 2.1 Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) …… 12
　　　 2.1.1 Three Approaches to CALL …………………. 12
　　　 2.1.2 Advantages of CALL …………………………… 14
　　　 2.1.3 Disadvantages of CALL ……………………… 16
　 2.2 Reading and Hypertext …………………………… 19
　　　 2.2.1 What is Reading ……………………………… 19
　　　 2.2.2 Reading Purposes ……………………………… 19
　　　 2.2.3 Definition of Hypertext …………………… 20
　　　 2.2.4 Linear and Nonlinear Reading Processes …22
　　　 2.2.5 Printed Text vs. Hypertext ……………………23
　　　 2.2.6 Relevant Research on Hypertext …………………25
　　　 2.2.7 Hypertext and Reading Skills …………… 28
　　　 2.2.8 Teaching Hypertext Reading ……………………31
　 2.3 The Information Processing Approach ………………34
　　　 2.3.1 Automatic and Controlled Processing …………35
　　　 2.3.2 Automaticity ………………………………………37
　　　 2.3.3 Automaticity and Reading ………………………39
　　　 2.3.4 Empirical Research on Automaticity in Second Language Acquisition (SLA) ………………………………………41

CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY …………………………… 45
　 3.1 Participants ………………………………………… 45
　 3.2 Materials ……………………………………………… 49
　　　3.2.1 Reading Selections ………………………………49
　　　3.2.2 Tests …………………………………………… 50
　　　　　 Reading Comprehension Test ………………… 50
　　　　　 Semantic Identification Test …………………53
　　　　　 Syntactic Identification Test ……………… 54
　　　　　 Automatic Performance Test …………………………55
　　　3.2.3 Attitude Questionnaire for Reading Printed Text and Hypertext ……………………………………………… 61
　 3.3 The Development of the Website………………… 61
　　　 3.3.1 Structure of the Website ……………………61
　　　 3.3.2 Program Development …………………………63
　　　 3.3.3 Hypertext Reading Test (HRT) Program …………64
　　　 3.3.4 Program Testing …………………………………64
　　　 3.3.5 Participants’ Record Database …………… 65
　 3.4 Procedure …………………………………………………66
　 3.5 Instrumentation ……………………………………………69

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS …………………………………………73
　 4.1 Observation Report of Participants’ Performances 73
　 4.2 Results of Individual Tests and Questionnaire ……75
　　　 4.2.1 Results of the Reading Comprehension Test 75
　　　　　 4.2.1.1 Item Difficulty and Item Discrimination of the Reading Comprehension Questions …………… 76
　　　　　 4.2.1.2 Prediction Section …………………………77
　　　　　 4.2.1.3 Reading Comprehension Questions ………80
　　　　　 4.2.1.4 Critical Reading Questions ……………86
　　　 4.2.2 Results of the Semantic Identification Test 88
　　　 4.2.3 Results of the Syntactic Identification Test 91
　　　 4.2.4 Results of the Automatic Performance Test…95
　　　　　 4.2.4.1 Listening Comprehension Exercise in the Automatic Performance Test (Article III) …………… 96
　　　　　 4.2.4.2 The Printed Text Version of Reading Comprehension Exercise in the Automatic Performance Test (Article IV) .. 97
　　　　　 4.2.4.3 The Hypertext Version of Reading Comprehension Exercise in the Automatic Performance Test (Article V) ………….. 99
　　　　　 4.2.4.4 Comparison Among the Three Exercises in the Automatic Performance Test …………………………. 102
　　　 4.2.5 Results of the Questionnaire for Reading Between Printed Text and Hypertext …………………………104
　　　　　 4.2.5.1 Reliability of the Questionnaire … 104
　　　　　 4.2.5.2 Results of the Questionnaire ……… 105
　　　　　 4.2.5.3 Results of Open Discussion Questions109

CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION ………………………………… 117
　 5.1 Overall Performance of the Participants from the Observation Report ….. 117
　 5.2 Performance of Individual Tests …………… 119
　　　 5.2.1 Reading Comprehension Test …………….. 119
　　　 5.2.2 Semantic Identification Test ……………. 129
　　　 5.2.3 Syntactic Identification Test …………. 131
　　　 5.2.4 Automatic Performance Test ………………… 134
　 5.3 Attitude Toward Hypertext Reading: Questionnaire 138

CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSIONS ……………………………… 145
　 6.1 Summary of the study ……………………………. 145
　 6.2 Limitations of the Study ……………………….. 146
　 6.3 Recommendations for Further Research…………. 147
　 6.4 Pedagogical Implications ………………………… 148
　 6.5 Conclusions …………………………...………….. 151

REFERENCES ……………………………….…………………. 154

APPENDICES
APPENDIX I Printed text Version for the Reading Comprehension Test ….. 164
APPENDIX II Hypertext Version for the Reading Comprehension Test ……. 167
APPENDIX III Printed text Version for the Semantic Identification Test ……. 169
APPENDIX IV Hypertext Version for the Semantic Identification Test ……… 170
APPENDIX V Printed text Version for the Syntactic Identification Test ……. 171
APPENDIX VI Hypertext Version for the Syntactic Identification Test ……… 172
APPENDIX VII Listening Comprehension Exercise for the Automatic Performance Test …………………………………………….. 173
APPENDIX VIII Printed Text Version of Reading Comprehension Exercise for the Automatic Performance Test ……………………………... 174
APPENDIX IX Hypertext Version of Reading Comprehension Exercise for the Automatic Performance Test …………………………….. 175
APPENDIX X Transcripts of Participants’ Recording ………………………. 176
APPENDIX XI Questionnaire for Reading Comprehension Between Printed Text and Hypertext …………………………………………... 198
LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 The Role of CALL in Structural, Cognitive, and Sociocognitive Approaches ………………………………………………………… 14
Table 2 Summary of Statistical Analysis of the GEPT-style Test Scores for Participants …………………………………………………………. 46
Table 3 Results of t-test of the GEPT-style Test Scores for the HPL and LPL Group .……….…………………………………………………….... 48
Table 4 Standard Description of Listening Comprehension Exercise in the Automatic Performance Test ……………………………………….. 58
Table 5 Standard Grading Description of the Printed Text Version of Reading Comprehension Exercise for the Automatic Performance Test ………………………………………………..……………… 59
Table 6 Standard Grading Description of the Hypertext Version of Reading Comprehension Exercise for the Automatic Performance Test ……………………………………………………………….… 60
Table 7 Item Difficulty of Multiple-choice Questions in the Reading Comprehension Test ………………………………………….……. 76
Table 8 Results of t-test for Reading Comprehension Questions …………… 81
Table 9 Percentage of Correct Answers for the Printed Text Version (Article I) and the Hypertext Version (Article II) in the Reading Comprehension Test ………………………………………………... 81
Table 10 Results of t-test for Printed Text Version and the Hypertext Version ….………………………………………………………….. 82
Table 11 Results of t-test for Reading Comprehension Questions for the HPL and LPL Group……….………………………..………….………… 83
Table 12 Results of Mean Scores from Q1 to Q5 in Reading Comprehension Questions ……………………………………………..…….………. 84
Table 13 A Paired-sample t-test of Reading Comprehension Questions for the HPL Group and the LPL Group …………………………………….. 85
Table 14 Results of t-test for the Semantic Identification Test ……………..... 89
Table 15 Results of t-test for Performance of the HPL and LPL Groups in Printed and Hypertext Versions……………………………………... 89
Table 16 Results of the Semantic Identification Test for the HPL Group and the LPL Group………………………………………….…………… 90
Table 17 Results of t-test for Content Words and Function Words in the Syntactic Identification Test……………………..……..…………… 91

Table 18 Results of t-test for Content Words and Function Words Identified by the HPL Group and the LPL Group ………………………..….… 93
Table 19 Results of a Paired-sample t-test on Content Words and Function Words for the HPL Group and the LPL Group……………………... 95
Table 20 Results of GEPT Simulated Test for Grouping the HPL Group and the LPL Group in the Automatic Performance Test…….…………… 95
Table 21 Results of Listening Comprehension Exercise in the Automatic Performance Test …………………………………………………… 96
Table 22 A Comparison of Listening Comprehension Exercise and the Printed Text Version of Reading Comprehension Exercise in the Automatic Performance Test…………………….………………….. 97
Table 23 Results of Word Recognition, Reading Rate, and Reading Comprehension on Paper in the Automatic Performance Test…...…. 99
Table 24 A Comparison of Listening Comprehension Exercise and Hypertext version of Reading Comprehension Exercise in the Automatic Performance Test ...…………………………………………………. 100
Table 25 Results of Word Recognition, Reading Rate, Reading Comprehension in the Hypertext Version of the Automatic Performance Test……………………………………………………. 101
Table 26 Results of a Paired-sample t-test on Word Recognition, Reading Rate and Reading Comprehension for the HPL Group and the LPL Group ……………………………………………………………….. 102
Table 27 One-way ANOVA of Three Exercises within the Automatic Performance Test ………………………………………………….... 103
Table 28 Comparison of the Three Automatic Performance Exercises ……..... 103
Table 29 Mean Scores of Questions from the Questionnaire…………...….…. 105
Table 30 The Top Three and Last Three Ranks of the Questionnaire ……..…. 106
Table 31 Results of the Questionnaire from Q1 to Q10 Between the HPL and LPL Groups ………………………………..……………………….. 107
Table 32 Results of a Paired-sample t-test Between Q1 and Q2, Q3 and Q7, Q4 and Q8, Q5 and Q9, and Q6 and Q10 in the Questionnaire …..... 108
Table 33 Results of t-test Between Q11 and Q12, Between Q12 and Q13, Between Q15 and Q16, Between Q17 and Q18, and Between Q23 and Q24 …………..……………………………………………….... 109
Table 34 Advantages and Disadvantages of Reading Printed Text and Hypertext …………………………………………………………… 112

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Framework of the investigation………...……………………....…… 4
Figure 2 The Information Processing Model ……………...……………...….. 36
Figure 3 The continuum of automatization …………………...……………… 37
Figure 4 The frequency distribution of raw scores in GEPT Style Test ….…... 47
Figure 5 Structure: two fundamental types of hyperstructure, axial- or hierarchical- structure (left) and network structure (right) ………..... 62
Figure 6 Structure of Hypertext Reading Test (HRT) Program …………........ 63
Figure 7 Screenshot of the first page of HRT program …………………..…... 64
Figure 8 Screenshot of participants’ database …………………………...…… 66
Figure 9 Procedure of doing tests on the printed text version……………...… 67
Figure 10 Procedure of doing tests on computer screens………………………. 68
Figure 11 A flowchart of the Automatic Performance Test …………..……..…. 69
Figure 12 Percentages of factors of hypertext reading ……………………..…. 110
Figure 13 Percentages of advantages of online reading ………………..……… 113
Figure 14 Percentages of difficulties of hypertext reading ………………..…... 114
Figure 15 Percentages of Intention to get online to read English articles …..… 115

Ahmad, K., Corbett, G.., Rogers, M., & Sussex, R. (1985). Computers, language learning and language teaching. Cambridge University Press.
Altun, A. (2003). Understanding hypertext in the context of reading on the web: Language learner’s experience [Electronic version]. Current Issues in Education, 6 (12).
Anderson, D. M. (2000). Individual characteristics and Web-based courses. In Wolfe, R. C. (Ed.), Learning and teaching on the World Wide Web (pp. 47-72). CA: Academic Press.
Anderson, J. N. (2002). Increasing reading fluency: activities for the EFL classroom. Selected papers from the 11th International Symposium on English Teaching/4th Pan Asian Conference, Taiwan, 15-25.
Atkinson, R., & Shiffrin, R. (1968). Human memory: A proposed system and its control processes. In Spence, K., & Spence, J. (Eds.). The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Advances in Research and Theory, Vol.2. NY: Academic Press.
Barchers, S. (1998). Teaching reading: From process to practice. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Barker, P. G., & Manji, K. A. (1988). New books for old. Programmed Learning and Educational Technology, 25(4), 310-313.
Barnes, S. (1994). Hypertext literacy. Interpersonal Computing and Technology, 2(4), 24-36.
Bellamy, C. (1999). The web, hypertext and history: A critical introduction. The Electronic Journal of Australian and New Zealand History. Retrieved February 24, 2005, from http://www.jcu.edu.au/aff/history/conferences/virtual/bellamy.htm
Birkerts, S. (1994). The gutenberg flegies: The fate of reading in the Electronic Age. New York: Fawcett Columbine.
Bolter J. D. (1991). Writing space: the computer, hypertext, and the history of writing. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Bolter, J. D. (1998). Hypertext and the question of visual literacy. In Reinking, D., McKenna, C. M., Labbo, D. L., & Kieffer, D. R. (Eds.), Handbook of literacy and the technology: Transformations in a post-typographic world (pp. 3-14). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Bowers, A. R. (1986). The future of the distribution of serials on optical media. Serials Reviews, 12, 13-15.
Britt, M. A., & Gabrys, G.. L. (2001). Teaching advanced literacy skills for the World Wide Web. In Wolfe, C. R. (Ed.), Learning and teaching on the World Wide Web (pp. 92-112). CA: Academic Press.
Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (4th ed.). NY: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy (2nd ed.). NY: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
Bush, V. (1991). As we may think. In Nyce, J. M., & Kahn, P. (Eds.), From Memex to Hypertext, 85-110.
Center for Advancement of Learning. (n.d.). Learning Strategies Databases. Retrieved August 25th, 2005, from http://www.muskingum.edu/~cal/database/general/reading.html
Chang, S. X., & Lin, X. J. (1995). SPSS for Windows. Song Gang Publisher.
Chao, K. R. (1995). New style of library management – CD Rom library. Bulletin of Taipei Public library, 12(4), 65-66.
Clarke, A. M., & Silberstein, S. (1987). Toward a realization of psycholinguistic principles in the ESL reading class. In Long, H. M. & Richards, C. J. (Eds.), Methodology in TESOL: A book of readings. MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Crook, C. (1994). Computers and the collaborative experience of learning. London: Routledge.
Crystal, D. (1992). An encyclopedic dictionary of language & languages. Blackwell Publishers.
Curry, J., Haderlie, S., Ku, T. W., Lawless, A. K., Lemon, M., & Wood, R. (1999). Specified learning goals and their effect on learners’ representations of a hypertext reading environment. International Journal of Instructional Media, 26 (1), 43-49.
Dale, E. & Chall, J. S. (1948). A formula for predicting readability. Educational Research Bulletin, 27, 37-53. Retrieved December 29, 2005, from http://www.interventioncentral.org/htmdocs/tools/okapi/okapimanual/dalechall1.shtml.
DeKeyser, R. M. (2001). Automaticity and automatization. In Robinson, P. (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction. Cambridge University Press.
Digman, J. M. (1990). Personality structure: Emergency of the five-factor model. Annual Review of Psychology, 41, 417-440.
Dunkel, P. (Ed.). (1991). Computer-assisted language learning and testing: Research issues and practice. NY: Newbury House.
Ellis, G., & Sinclair, B. (1989). Learning to learn English: A course in learner training. Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, R. (1999). The study of second language acquisition (6th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
Engebretsen, M. (2000). Hypernews and coherence. Journal of Digital Information, 1(7).
Eskey, D. (1988). Holding in the bottom: An alternative approach to the language problems of second language readers. In Carrell, P., Devine, J. & Eskey, D. (Eds.), Interactive approaches to second language reading. Cambridge University Press.
Fromkin, V., & Rodman, R. (1998). An introduction to language (6th ed.). Harcourt Brace & Company.
Gleason, J. B., & Ratner, N. B. (1998). Psycholinguistics (2nd ed.). FL: Harcourt, Inc.
Grellet, F. (1981). Developing reading skills: A practical guide to reading comprehension exercises. Cambridge University Press.
Hardisty, D., & Windeatt, S. (1990). CALL. Oxford University Press.
Harmer, J. (1991). The practice of English language teaching. Longman Group UK Ltd.
Hatch, E., Polin P., & Part S. (1970). Acoustic scanning or syntactic processing. Paper presented at the meeting of the Western Psychological Association. San Francisco.
Hatch, E., & Brown, C. (2000). Vocabulary, semantics, and language education. Cambridge University Press.
Higgins, J., & Johns, T. (1984). Computers in language learning. Collins ELT.
Hofman, R., & van Oostendorp, H. (1999). Cognitive effects of a structural overview in a hypertext. British Journal of Educational Technology, 30 (2).
Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State University. Retrieved January 12, 2005, from http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc.html.
Intrator, S. M. (2000). Click, click, click…what do we know about reading hypertext? Knowledge Quest.
Jones, C., & Fortescue, S. (1991). Using computers in the language classroom. Longman Group UK Limited.
Keep, C., McLaughlin, T., & Palmar, R. (2004). Ted Nelson and Xanadu. The Electronic Labyrinth. Retrieved December 05, 2004, from http://www.iath.virginia.edu/elab/hfl0155.html.
Kenning M. J., & Kenning M. M. (1983). An introduction to Computer Assisted Language Teaching. Oxford University Press.
Kern, R., & Warschauer, M. (2000). Theory and practice of network-based language teaching In Warschauer, M., & Kern, R. (Eds.), Network-based language teaching: Concepts and practice (pp. 1-19). Cambridge University Press.
Kuhn, R. M., & Stahl A. S. (2002). Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices. CIERA Report #2-008. Available February 24, 2005 from http://www.ciera.org/library/reports/inquiry-2/2-008/2-008.html
Landow, G. P. (1992). Hypertext: The convergence of contemporary critical theory and technology. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Lehtonen, J., & Sajavaara, K. (1983). Acceptability and ambiguity in native and second language message processing. In Ringbom, H. (Ed.). Psycholinguistics and foreign language learning. Abo: Abo Akademi.
Leonard, J. (1984). Computers in language and literacy work. Albsu, ILEA and M. J. Leonard.
Levy, M. (1997). Computer-assisted language learning: Context and conceptualization. Oxford University Press.
Logan, D. G. (1997). Automaticity and reading: Perspectives from the instance theory of automatization. Reading & Writing Quarterly. 13 (2), 123.
Long, H. M. & Richards, C. J. (1987). Methodology in TESOL: A book of readings. MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
MacKay, I. R. A. (1978). Introducing Practical Phonetics. Little, Brown and Company.
McHoul, A., & Roe, P. (1996). Hypertext and Reading Cognition. Retrieved January 19, 2005, from http://wwwmcc.murdoch.edu.as/ReadingRoom/VID/cognition.
McLaughlin, B., Rossman, T., & McLeod, B. (1983). Second language learning: An information processing perspective. Language Learning, 33(2), 135-158.
McLaughlin, B. (1990). ‘Conscious’ versus ‘Unconscious’ Learning. TESOL Quarterly, 24(4), 617-634.
McLeod, B., & McLaughlin, B. (1986). Restructing or automaticity? Reading in a second language. Language Learning. 36 (2).
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81-97.
Moslehpour, M. (2002). Internet@English.EFL. Tung Hua Book Co. Ltd.
Mullan, S. P. (1997). Applying Speed Reading Techniques to Improve Competence and Confidence in On-Screen Computer Reading. Master Thesis. Retrieved June, 10, 2005 from http://www.smartconcepts.net/Fr_thesis/index.htm
Murray, J. H. (1997). Hamlet on the Holodeck: The future of Narrative in cyberspace. New York: The Free Press.
Nation, R., & McLaughlin, B. (1986). Novices and experts: An information processing approach to the ‘good language learner’ problem. Applied Psycholinguistics, 7, 41-56.
Nation, I. S. P. (1990). Teaching and learning vocabulary. Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Neil, A. (1999). Exploring second language reading: Issues and strategies. Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Nielsen. J. (1997). Be Succinct! (Writing for the Web). Retrieved February 12, 2005, from http://www.useit.com/alertbox/9703b.html
Nuttall, C. (2000). Teaching reading skills in a foreign language. Macmillan Heinemann English Language Teaching.
Ojala, M. (2000). Online reading as a nonlinear activity. Econtent, 23 (5), 6.
O’Connor, J. S. (2001). Master GEPT cloze & reading: Intermediate. Beta Multimedia Publishing.
O’Hara, K., & Sellen, A. (1997). A comparison of reading paper and on-line documents. CHI 97 Electronic Publications. Retrieved July 25, 2002, from http://www1.acm.org/sigs/sigchi/chi97/proceedings/paper/koh.htm
Oliver, P., & Kantaris, N. (1997) Email on the Internet. Bernard Babani (Publishing) Ltd.
Oshiman, J., & Scardamalia, M. (1996). Collaborative learning processes associated with high and low conceptual progress. Instructional Science, 23, 125-155.
Papert, S. (1980). Mindstorms: Children, computers, and powerful ideas. NY: Basic Books.
Paribakht, T. S., & Wesche, M. (2000). Vocabulary enhancement activities and reading for meaning in second language vocabulary acquisition. In Coady, J., & Huckin T. (2000). Second language vocabulary acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Patterson, N. G. (1999). Making connections: hypertext and research in a middle school classroom. English Journal. Urbana.
Patton, Q. M. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications.
Platt, J., Platt, H., & Richards, J.C. (1985). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. Longman Group UK Ltd.
Purves, A. (1998). Files in the web of hypertext. In Reinking, D., McKenna, C. M., Labbo, D. L., & Kieffer, D. R. (Eds.), Handbook of literacy and the technology: Transformations in a post-typographic world (pp. 235-251). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Rawlins, G. J. E. (1993). Reading and writing the electronic book. IEEE Computer, 15.
Reinhardt, A. (1995). New ways to learn. BYTE, 20 (3).
Reinking, D. (1997). Me and my hypertext: a multiple digression analysis of technology and literacy. Reading Teacher, 50(8), 626-634.
Reyna, V. F., Brainerd, C. J., Effken, J., Bootzin, R., & Lloyd, F. J. (2000). The psychology of human: Computer mismatches. In Wolfe, R. C. (Ed.), Learning and teaching on the World Wide Web. CA: Academic Press.
Richards, C. J., Platt, J., & Platt, H. (2003). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. Longman Group UK Limited.
Rivers, W. M., & Temperly, M. S. (1978). A practical guide to the teaching of English as a second language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Robinson, P. (2001). Cognition and second language instruction. Cambridge University Press.
Samuels, S. J., & Flor, F. R. (1997). The importance of automaticity for developing expertise in reading. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 13(2), 107.
Segalowitz, N. (1986). Skilled reading in the second language. In Vaid, J. (Ed.). Language processing in bilinguals: psycholinguistic and neuropsychological perspectives, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Seiler, L. H. (1992). The concept of book in the age of the digital electronic medium. Library Software Review, 11, 19-29.
Shiffrin, R. M., & Schneider, W. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing II: Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review, 84, 127-190.
Smith F., & K.S. Goodman. (1973). On the psycholinguistic method of teaching reading. In Smith, F. (Ed.). Psycholinguistics and reading (pp. 177-182). NY: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Smith, L. (1999). Notes on reading hypertext articles. Retrieved January 12, 2005 from http://mason.gmu.edu/~lsmithg/htread.htm.
Smith, L. C., & Mare, N. N. (1990). Issues for Today. Heinle & Heinle.
Swaffar, J., Arens, K., & Byrnes, H. (1991). Reading for meaning: An integrated approach to language learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Synder, I. (1996). Hypertext: The electronic labyrinth. New York: New York University Press.
Teeler, D., & Gray, P. (2000). How to use the Internet in ELT. Pearson Education Ltd.
The Columbia Encyclopedia (2003). The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). [Electronic version]. Columbia University Press. Retrieved January, 12, 2005, http://education.yahoo.com/reference/encyclopedia/entry?id=23020
Wallace, M. P. (1999). The psychology of the Internet. Cambridge University Press.
Walz, J. (2001). Reading hypertext: lower-level processes. Canadian Modern Language Review, 57(3).
Wang, C. (1988). Electronic publishing and its impact on print publishing: A study of expenditure and usage in three selected libraries in Atlanta Georgia, Ann Arbor. MI: UMI, 29.
Whitaker, H. A. (1983). Towards a brain model of automatization: A short essay. In R. A. Magill (Ed.), Memory and control of action (pp.199-214). New York: North-Holland Publishing Company.
Widdowson, H. G.. (1979). Reading and thinking in English. Oxford University Press.
Wolfe, R. C. (2000). Learning and teaching on the World Wide Web. In Wolfe, R. C. (Ed.), Learning and teaching on the World Wide Web (pp. 1-21). CA: Academic Press.
Wolfe, R. C. (2000). Learning and teaching on the World Wide Web. CA: Academic Press.
Wolfe, S. (1981). Bilingualism: One or two conceptual systems. Master Thesis. San Francisco State University.
Yam.Com (2004). The use of the Internet for teenagers. Retrieved from August, 10, 2005 from http://survey.yam.com/survey2004/
Yankelovich, N., & Meyrowitz, N. (1985). Reading and writing the electronic book. IEEE Computer, 18(10), 15-30.
Yoshomura, F. (2000). Automaticity theory and EFL in Japan: With some specific applications for reading. Literacy Across Cultures, 4(1). Retrieved from June, 10, 2005 from http://www2.aasa.ac.jp/~dcdycus/LAC2000/yoshimura.htm