臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

摘要
本研究旨在探討三種類比策略訓練對國小四年級學童學習認讀英文字的成效，此三種類比策略分別為尾韻類比「rime analogy」、頭音母音類比「CV analogy」以及母音類比「vowel analogy」。本研究的對象為台南縣某國小三班共94位四年級學童，根據學童的英文閱讀程度及英文學習背景，分為三組，每一組接受一種類比策略訓練。在策略訓練過程中，一開始每位學童會接受提示字訓練「clue word training」，接著有三次認讀新字的訓練，每一次包括一項「訓練-轉換」測驗「training-transfer task」和一項「記憶」測驗「retention test」。完成這三次的訓練之後，學童立刻接受「應用」測驗「generalization test」。結果顯示，雖然頭音母音組學童在認讀類比部分「colored part reading」的表現優於其他兩組，但在運用類比策略認讀新字上，他們的表現並沒有勝過其他兩組。同時，三組學童在記憶及應用測驗的表現並無顯著差異。此外，這三種類比策略訓練的功效並不會隨學童的英文閱讀能力不同而改變。最後，本研究的受測者表現出對英文字的頭音母音的高敏感度，但此敏感度似乎和認讀英文字並無相關。反之，無論學童是接受那一種類比策略訓練，他們的尾韻知覺能力都和他們在策略訓練的表現有顯著相關。上述研究發現顯示，類比部分的不同似乎不是影響策略運用的重要原因。對學習英語為外語的中文學童而言，尾韻覺識能力在學習認讀英文過程中扮演較決定性的角色。

Abstract
This study investigated the effect of three types of analogy training -- the rime analogy, the CV analogy and the vowel analogy -- on learning to read English words among 94 fourth-grade Chinese EFL learner. The participants were divided into three groups matched for reading level and English learning background and each group was randomly assigned to one of the three analogy training conditions. Each training condition began with clue word training, followed by three training trials. Each training trial contained a training-transfer task and a retention test. A generalization test was given immediately after the child completed the last training trial. The results showed although the CV group performed significantly better on colored part reading (i.e., reading CV units of the clue words), they did not outperform the other two groups in applying the trained analogy to reading new words. Moreover, the three groups of children performed similarly in the retention and the generalization tests. Neither did the effectiveness of the various analogy trainings vary with the children’s reading level. Finally, the participants in the present study demonstrated high sensitivity to the CV units of English, but this sensitivity did not seem to be related to English word reading. Instead, children’s awareness of the rime unit was closely related to their performances in various outcome measures of analogy training irrespective of the type of the training received by the participants. These findings suggest that specific variations in the units of analogy reading may be less important than once thought for Chinese EFL learners. It might be the rime awareness of English that plays a more crucial role in learning to read English words for Chinese EFL learners.

Chinese Abstract..........................................vi
English Abstract.........................................vii
Chapter 1 Introduction................................... 1
1.1 Rationale........................................ 1
1.2 Research Questions and Prediction................ 8
1.3 Significance of the Study........................ 9
1.4 Definition of Terms.............................. 11
1.5 Organization..................................... 15
Chapter 2 Literature Review.............................. 15
2.1 Theories of Reading and Reading Acquisition.......... 15
2.1.1 Models of skilled reading........................ 15
2.1.2 Theories of reading acquisition.................. 18
2.2 Phonological Awareness and Reading................... 23
2.2.1 English speakers’ phonological awareness in
reading........................................... 24
2.2.2 Chinese speakers’ phonological awareness in
reading…........................................ 29
2.3 Reading by Analogy................................... 34
2.3.1 Units available in reading by analogy............ 35
2.3.2 Reading levels necessary for reading by
analogy.......................................... 43
Chapter 3 Methods........................................ 47
3.1 An Overview of the Current study..................... 47
3.2 Participants......................................... 49
3.2.1 Grouping materials and procedure................. 50
3.2.2 Grouping characteristics of the participants..... 53
3.3 Phonological Awareness Test.......................... 55
3.4 Analogy Training Session............................. 56
3.5 Data Analysis........................................ 63
Chapter 4 Results........................................ 65
4.1 Effects of Analogy Training Methods.................. 65
4.2 Relation Between the Reading Level and the Effect of
Analogy Training Methods............................. 72
4.3 Correlations Between Phonological Awareness and the
Outcome Measure...................................... 76
Chapter 5 Discussion and Conclusion...................... 81
5.1Discussion............................................ 81
5.1.1 The effects of analogy training methods.......... 81
5.1.2 The effect of reading level in reading by analogy 86
5.1.3 Chinese-speaking children’s phonological awareness
and reading by analogy........................... 90
5.2 Conclusion........................................... 93
5.2.1 Summary of findings.............................. 93
5.2.2 Pedagogical implication.......................... 95
5.2.3 Limitation of the present study.................. 97
References............................................... 99
Appendix A...............................................104
Appendix B...............................................106
Appendix C...............................................107
Appendix D...............................................108
Appendix E...............................................109
Appendix F...............................................111
Appendix G...............................................113

References
Adams, M. J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Ball, E. W., & Blachman, B. A. (1991). Does phoneme awareness training in kindergarten make a difference in early word recognition and developmental spelling? Reading Research Quarterly, 26, 49-66.
Blevins, J. (1996). The syllable in phonological theory. In J. A. Goldsmith (Ed.), The handbook of phonological theory (pp.206-244). Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.
Bourassa, D., & Treiman, R. (2003). Spelling in Children with Dyslexia: Analysis from the Treiman-Bourassa early spelling test. Scientific Studies of Reading, 7, 309-333.
Bowey, J. A., & Hansen, J. (1994). The development of orthographic rimes as units of word recognition. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 58, 465-488.
Bowey, J. A., & Underwood, N. (1996). Further evidence that orthographic rime usage in nonword reading increase with word-level reading proficiency. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 63, 526-562.
Bowey, J. A., Vaughan, L., & Hansen, J. (1998). Beginning readers’ use of orthographic analogies in word reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 68, 108-133.
Bowey, J. A. (1999). The limitations of orthographic rime analogies in beginners’ word reading: A reply to Goswami (1999). Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 72, 220-231.
Bradley, L., & Bryant, P. E. (1983). Categorising sounds and learning to read: A causal connection. Nature, 301, 419-421.
Brown, G. D. A., & Deavers, R. P. (1999). Units of analysis in nonword reading: Evidence from children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 73, 208-242.
Bruck, M., & Treiman, R. (1992). Learning to pronounce words: The limitations of analogies. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 374-388.
Bryant, P. E., Bradley, L., MacLean, M., & Crossland, J. (1989). Nursery rhymes, phonological skills and reading. Journal of Child Language, 16, 407-428.
Chen, S. W. (2006). Phonological processing unit transfer: The impact of first language syllable structure and its implications for preferred subsyllabic division units. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland.
Christensen, C. A., & Bowey, J. A. (2005). The efficacy of orthographic rime, grapheme-phoneme correspondence, and implicit phonics approaches to teaching decoding skills. Scientific studies of reading, 9, 327-349.
Coltheart, M., Davelaar, E., Jonasson, J. T., & Besner, D. (1977). Access to the internal lexicon. In S. Dornic (Ed.), Attention and performance VI (pp. 535-555). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Coltheart, M. (1978). Lexical acess in simple reading tasks. In G. Underwood (Ed.), Strategies in information processing (pp. 151-216). London: Academic.
Coltheart, V., & Leahy, J. (1992). Children’s and adults’ reading of nonwords: Effects of regularity and consistency. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, 718-729.
Duncan, L. G., Seymour, P. H. K., & Hill, S. (1997). How important are rhyme and analogy in the beginning reading? Cognition, 63, 171-208.
Ehri, L. C. (1991). Development of the ability to read words. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. B. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of reading research (Vol. 2, pp. 383-417). New York, NY: Longman.
Ehri, L. C. (1992). Reconceptualizing the development of sight word reading and its relationship to recoding. In P. B. Gough, L.C. Ehri, & R. Treiman (Eds.), Reading acquisition (pp. 107-143). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Ehri, L. C., & Robbins, C. (1992). Beginners need some decoding skill to read words by analogy. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 12-26.
Foorman, B. R., Francis, D. J., Novy, D. M., & Liberman, D. (1991). How letter-sound instruction mediates progress in first-grade reading and spelling. Journal of Educational Psychology, 83, 456-469.
Frith, U. (1985). Beneath the surface of developmental dyslexia. In K. E. Patterson, J. C. Marshall, & M. Coltheart (Eds.), Surface dyslexia (pp. 301-330). London: Erlbaum.
Fudge, E. C. (1969). Syllables. Journal of Linguistics, 5, 253-286.
Fudge, E. C. (1987). Branching structure within the syllable. Journal of Linguistics, 23, 359-377.
Geudens, A., & Sandra, D. (2003). Beyond implicit phonological knowledge: No support for an onset-rime structure in children’s explicit phonological awareness. Journal of Memory and Language, 49, 157-182.
Gillon, G. (2004). Phonological awareness: From research to practice. New York: The Guilford Press.
Glushko, R. J. (1981). Principles for pronouncing print: The psychology of phonography. In A. M. Lesgold & C. A. Perfetti (Eds.), Interactive processes in reading (pp. 61-84). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Goswami, U. (1986). Children’s use of analogy in learning to read: A developmental study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 42, 73-83.
Goswami, U. (1990). Phonological priming and orthographic analogies in reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 49, 323-340.
Goswami, U., & Bryant, P. E. (1990). Phonological skills and learning to read. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Goswami, U. (1991). Learning about spelling sequences: The role of onsets and rimes in analogies in reading. Children Development, 62, 1110-1123.
Goswami, U., & Mead, F. (1992). Onset and rime awareness and analogies in reading. Reading Research Quarterly, 27, 152-162.
Goswami, U. (1993). Toward an interactive analogy model of reading development: Decoding vowel graphemes in beginning reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 56, 443-475.
Goswami, U. (1995). Phonological development and reading by analogy: What is analogy, and what is it not? Journal of Research in Reading, 18, 139-145.
Goswami, U., Gombert, J. E., & de Barrera, L. F. (1998). Children’s orthographic representations and linguistic transparency: Nonsense word reading in English, French, and Spanish. Applied Psycholinguistics, 19, 19-52
Goswami, U., Ziegler, J. C., Dalton, L., & Schneider, W. (2003). Nonword reading across orthographies: How flexible is the choice of reading units? Applied Psycholinguistics, 24, 235-247.
Gottardo, A.,Yan, B., Siegel, L. S., & Wade-Woolley, L. (2001). Factors related to English reading performance in children with Chinese as a first language: More evidence of cross-language transfer of phonological processing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 530-542.
Hansen, J. G. (2001). Linguistic constraints on the acquisition of English syllable codas by native speakers of Mandarin Chinese. Applied Linguistics, 22, 338-365.
Ho, C. S-H., & Bryant, P. (1997). Learning to read Chinese beyond the logographic phase. Reading Research Quarterly, 32, 276-289.
Ho, C. S-H., & Bryant, P. (1997). Development of phonological awareness of Chinese children in Hong Kong. Journal of Psycholinguistic Research, 26, 109-126.
Holopainen, L., Ahonen, T., & Lyytinen, H. (2002). The role of reading by analogy in first grade Finnish readers. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 46, 83-98.
Hong,Y. L., Huang, S. S., Jhou, Y. L., Liou, Y. M., Lin, J. R., & Sie, L. S. 洪燕玲、黃秀霜、周奕良、柳雅梅、林娟如、謝麗雪 (2006)。英語認字測驗。心理出版社。
Hu, C. F., & Catts, H. W. (1998). The role of phonological processing in early reading ability: What we can learn from Chinese. Scientific Studies of Reading, 2, 55-79.
Hulme, C., Hatcher, P. J., Nation, K., Brown, A., Adams, J., & Stuart, G. (2002). Phoneme awareness is a better predictor of early reading skill than onset-rime awareness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 82, 2-28.
Kamhi, A. G., & Laing, S. P. (2000). The role of analogy in learning to read. Log Phon Vocol, 25, 29-34.
Kessler, B., & Treiman, R. (1997). Syllable structure and the distribution of phonemes in English syllables. Journal of Memory and Language, 37, 295-311.
Kirtley, C., Bryant, P., MacLean, M., & Bradley, L. (1989) Rhyme, rime, and the onset of reading. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 48, 224-245.
Masonheimer, P. E., Drum, P. A., & Ehri. L. C. (1984). Does environmental print identification lead children into word reading? Journal of Reading Behavior, 16, 257-271.
Muter, V., Hulme, C., Snowling, M., & Taylor S. (1997). Segmentation, not rhyming, predicts early progress in learning to read. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 65, 370-396.
Nation, K., & Hulme, C. (1997). Phonemic segmentation, not onset-rime segmentation, predicts early reading and spelling skills. Reading Research Quarterly, 32, 154-167.
Pick, A., Unze, M., Brownell, C. A., Drozdal, J. G., & Hopman, M. K. (1978). Young children’s knowledge of word structure. Child Development, 49, 669-680.
Peterson, M. E., & Haines, L. P. (1992). Orthographic analogy training with kindergarten children: Effects of analogy use, phonemic segmentation, and letter-sound knowledge. Journal of Reading Behavior, 24, 109-127.
Read, C., Zhang, Y., Nie, H., & Ding, B. (1986). The ability to manipulate speech sounds depends on knowing alphabetic spelling. Cognition, 24, 31-44.
Rickard Liow, S., & Poon, K. (1998). Phonological awareness in multilingual Chinese children. Applied Psycholinguistics, 19, 339-362.
Savage, R. S., Frederickson, N., Goodwin, R., Patni, U., Smith, N., & Tuersley, L. (2005). Relationships among rapid digit naming, phonological processing, motor automaticity, and speech perception in poor, average, and good readers and spellers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38, 12-28.
Selkirk, E. O. (1982). The syllable. In H. Van der Hulst, & N. Smith (Eds.), The structure of phonological representations (Part II) (pp. 337-383). Dordrecht: Foris.
Share, D. L. (2004). Knowing letter names and learning letter sounds: A causal connection. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 88, 213-233.
Treiman, R. (1985). Onsets and rimes as units of spoken syllables: Evidence from children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 39, 161-181.
Treiman, R. (1986). The division between onsets and rimes in English syllables. Journal of Memory and Language, 25, 476-491.
Treiaman, R., Goswami, U., & Bruck, M. (1990). Not all nonwords are alike: Implication for reading development and theory. Memory and Cognition, 18, 559-567.
Treiman, R., & Kessler, B. (1995). In defense of an onset-rime syllable structure for English. Language and Speech, 38, 127-142.
Treiman, R., Mullennix, J., Bijeljac-Babic, R., & Richmond-Welty, E. D. (1995). The special role of rimes in the description, use, and acquisition of English orthography. Journal of Experimental Psychology General, 124, 107-136.
Uhry, J. K., & Ehri, L. C. (1999). Ease of segmenting two- and three-phoneme words in kindergarten: Rime cohesion or vowel salience. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 594-603.
Walton, P. D., Walton, L. M., & Felton, K. (2001). Teaching rime analogy or letter recoding strategies to prereaders: Effects on prereading skills and word reading. Journal of Educational psychology, 93, 160-180.
Wang, B.W. 王備五 (2003)。英語的音節結構：理論與教學。英語教學，27(3)，1-14頁。
Wise, B. W., Olson, R. K., & Treiman, R. (1990). Subsyllabic units in computerized reading instruction: Onset-rime vs. postvowel segmentation. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 49, 1-19.
Ziegler, J. C., & Goswami, U. (2005). Reading acquisition, developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across language: A psycholinguistic grain size theory. (2005). Psychological Bulletin, 131, 3-29