蔓越莓具有高抗氧化性及生物活性，包括抗癌、預防心血管疾病、預防泌尿道感染、預防胃潰瘍等功效，頗受消費者矚目。蔓越莓含有豐富的酚類化合物，本研究針對蔓越莓中酚類化合物之儲存安定性及其對黃斑部病變之影響進行探討。結果顯示，蔓越莓中的酚類化合物含量會隨儲存時間而下降，其中以游離態quercetin之安定性最佳，總類黃酮及前花青素則其次，在總酚類化合物之安定性最差。而在其乙酸乙酯萃取物中，以含縮合單寧區分物之抗氧化能力最好。在細胞實驗中，利用藍光(波長為450nm)照射誘使人類視網膜色素上皮細胞株(ARPE-19細胞)受損的試驗模式可知，蔓越莓中之縮合單寧區分物具有修復人類眼球上皮細胞損害的功效，而又以含寡縮合單寧區分物（oligomeric condensed tannin）之效果較佳。由本研究結果可知，蔓越莓可能具有清除自由基以及修復人類眼球上皮細胞損害的功效，進而預防因自由基所誘發之黃斑部病變之發生。

Cranberry shows high antioxidation and biological activities, including anticancer, prevention of cardiovascular disease, prevention of urinary tract infection, prevention of gastric ulcer and so on. Cranberry contains abundant phenolics. Thus this study was focused on the storage stability of phenolics in cranberry and its effect on age-related macular degeneration（AMD）. The results showed that the phenolics in cranberry would reduced. The free quercetin showed the best stability. And the flavonoids and proanthocyanidins were the second. The total phenolics showed the worst stability. In the ethyl acetate extract of cranberry, the condensed tannin containing fraction showed the best antioxidant activity. In the cell experiments, the model of damaged ARPE-19 cells irradiated by blue light （450nm）showed that the condensed tannin containing fraction in cranberry could repair the damaged ARPE-19 cells irradiated by blue-light. Moreover, the oligomeric condensed tannin containing fraction showed the best efficiency. In conclusion, this study clearly showed that cranberry could scavenge free radicals and cause good efficiency on repairing ARPE-19 cells. This probably showed that cranberry could prevent the age-related
macular degeneration causing by free radicals.

目 錄
頁次
表次……………………………………………………………………………………I
圖次…………………………………………………………………………………II
中文摘要……………………………………………………………………………IV
英文摘要……………………………………………………………………………V
壹. 前言………………………………………………………………………………1
貳. 文獻探討……………………………………………………………2
一、 蔓越莓………………………………………………………………………2
（一） 蔓越莓的簡介………………………………………………… 2
（二） 蔓越莓的組成份………………………………………………2
（三） 蔓越莓的生理功效……………………………………………8
二、 酚類化合物………………………………………………………10
（一） 酚類化合物的定義與分類……………………………………10
（二） 酚類化合物的生理活性………………………………………18
（三） 酚類化合物與抗氧化…………………………………………18
（四） 酚類化合物與抗發炎…………………………………………18
三、 前花青素…………………………………………………………19
（一） 結構……………………………………………………………19
（二） 生理活性………………………………………………………20
1. 抗氧化………………………………………………………20
2. 抗癌…………………………………………………………20
3. 抑菌…………………………………………………………21
4. 預防白內障…………………………………………………21
四、 人類眼球視網膜色素上皮細胞…………………………………21
參. 研究目的………………………………………………………………… 24
肆. 實驗流程………………………………………………………………… 25
伍. 材料方法………………………………………………………………… 26
一、 試驗材料…………………………………………………………26
（一） 蔓越莓與蔓越莓濃縮原汁…………………………………26
（二） 蔓越莓汁儲存條件…………………………………………26
（三） 蔓越莓汁乙酸乙酯萃取物製備……………………………26
（四） 乙酸乙酯萃取物之區分……………………………………26
（五） 含縮合單寧區分物之再區分………………………………27
二、 試驗用藥…………………………………………………………27
三、 試驗儀器…………………………………………………………29
四、 試驗方法…………………………………………………………29
（一） 酚類化合物之含量分析……………………………………29
1. 總酚類化合物含量…………………………………………29
2. 總類黃酮化合物含量………………………………………30
3. 前花青素含量測定…………………………………………30
4. quercetin（free）含量的測定…………………………………30
5. 縮合單寧含量的測定………………………………………31
6. 單寧之確認…………………………………………………31
（二） 抗氧化活性試驗……………………………………………31
1. 總抗氧化能力………………………………………………31
2. 還原力之測定………………………………………………31
3. DPPH自由基清除能力測定…………………………………32
（三） 細胞培養……………………………………………………32
（四） 薄層層析法…………………………………………………34
（五） 酚類化合物之高效能液相層析……………………………34
陸. 統計分析……………………………………………………………………… 36
柒. 結果與討論……………………………………………………………… 37
一、 蔓越莓中酚類化合物之安定性試驗…………………………… 37
二、 蔓越莓濃縮汁中酚類化合物含量分析………………………… 42
三、 蔓越莓汁乙酸乙酯萃取物及其區分物中酚類化合物之分析………………………………………………………………………… 42
（一） 蔓越莓汁乙酸乙酯萃取物之製備…………………………42
（二） 乙酸乙酯萃取物之區分……………………………………42
（三） 酚類化合物之分析…………………………………………42
（四） 酚類化合物之HPLC分析…………………………………45
四、 蔓越莓汁乙酸乙酯萃取物及其區分物之生物活性探討…………………………………………………………………………45
（一） 抗氧化活性試驗……………………………………………45
（二） 蔓越莓汁乙酸乙酯萃取物對ARPE-19細胞增生之
影響…………………………………………………………52
（三） 蔓越莓乙酸乙酯萃取物之再區分物對受損ARPE-19
五、 細胞增生之影響……………………………………………57
（一） 含縮合單寧區分物之再區分………………………………57
（二） 含縮合單寧區分物之再區分物成份分析…………………59
（三） 含縮合單寧區分物之再區分物對ARPE-19細胞增
生之影響………………………………………………………62
捌. 結論…………………………………………………………………………… 65
玖. 參考文獻……………………………………………………………………… 66

中村英雄 (1997). 藍莓萃取物之研究與應用. 食品工業 40, 47-55.
吳淳美 (1990). 花青素之色澤及其穩定性. 食品工業 2, 19-24.
呂正傑 (2006). 蔓越莓汁之體外生物活性及調節人體血脂之研究 中山醫學大學營養科學研究所 碩士論文.
林慧芬 (2005). 紅葡萄酒之抗氧化活性 輔仁大學食品科學系 碩士論文.
陳彥州, 林慧宜, 柯景懷, 和 沈杏娟 (2002). 天然多酚類化合物之抗發炎、抗癌及誘導腦血管舒張之活性研究. 國科會生命科學簡訊，台北醫學大學生藥學研究所及醫學系皮膚學科.
蔡淑慧 (1998). 發炎與抗發炎分子機制之探討. 國立台灣大學生化學研究所 博士論文.
Ahmed, S., Rahman, A., Hasnain, A., Lalonde, M., Goldberg, V.M., and Haqqi, T.M. (2002). Green tea polyphenol epigallocatechin-3-gallate inhibits the IL-1 beta-induced activity and expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and nitric oxide synthase-2 in human chondrocytes. Free Radic Biol Med 33, 1097-1105.
Ames, B.N., Shigenaga, M.K., and Hagen, T.M. (1993). Oxidants, antioxidants, and the degenerative diseases of aging. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 90, 7915-7922.
Arnao, M.B., Casas, J.L., del Rio, J.A., Acosta, M., and and Garcia-Canovas, F. (1990a). An enzymatic colorimetric method for measuring naringin using 2,2''-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)(ABTS) in the presence of peroxidase. Anal Biochem 185, 335-338.
Arnao, M.B., Casas, J.L., del Rio, J.A., Acosta, M., and Garcia-Canovas, F. (1990b). An enzymatic colorimetric method for measuring naringin using 2,2''-azino-bis-(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)(ABTS) in the presence of peroxidase. Anal Biochem 185, 335-338.
Bailey, T.A., Kanuga, N., Romero, I.A., Greenwood, J., Luthert, P.J., and Cheetham, M.E. (2004). Oxidative stress affects the junctional integrity of retinal pigment epithelial cells. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 45, 675-684.
Berendschot, T.T., Goldbohm, R.A., Klopping, W.A., van de Kraats, J., van Norel, J., and van Norren, D. (2000). Influence of lutein supplementation on macular pigment, assessed with two objective techniques. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 41, 3322-3326.
Bernhard, W., Karlis, B., and Gerhard, R. (2002). Anthocyane. Emahrungs-Umschau 49(4), 148-150.
Bilyk, A., and Sapers, G. (1986). Varietal differences in the quercetin , kampferol, and myricetin content of highbush blueberry, cranberry, and thomless blackberry fruits. J Agric Food Chem 34, 585-588.
Bomser, J., Madhavi, D.L., Singletary, K., and Smith, M.A. (1996). In vitro anticancer activity of fruit extracts from Vaccinium species. Planta Med 62, 212-216.
Bononi, M., and Tateo, F. (2007). Stabilization of cranberry anthocyanins in nutraceutical capsules. Int J Food Sci Nutr 58, 142-149.
Bors, W., Heller, W., Michel, C., and Saran, M. (1990). Flavonoids as antioxidants : determination of radical-scavenging efficiencies. Methods Enzymol 186, 343-355.
Bors, W., Heller, W., Michel, C., and Saran, M. (1990). Flavonoids as antioxidants:determination of radical-scavenging efficiencies. Methods Enzymol 343-355.
Bracke, M.E., Bruyneel, E. A., Vermeulen, S. J., Vennekens, K. I., Marck, V. V., and Mareel, M. M. (1994). Citrus flavonoid effect on tumor invasion and metastasis. Food Technol 48, 121-124.
Burger, O., Ofek, I., Tabak, M., Weiss, E.I., Sharon, N., and Neeman, I. (2000). A high molecular mass constituent of cranberry juice inhibits Helicobacter pylori adhesion to human gastric mucus. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol 29, 295-301.
Catherine, A., Rice-Evans, N. S., Nicholas, J. M., and George, P. (1997). Antioxidant properties of phenolic compounds. Treds in Plant Sci 2, 152-359.
Chan, M.M. (1995). Inhibition of tumor necrosis factor by curcumin, a phytochemical. Biochem Pharmacol 49, 1551-1556.
Chan, M.M., Ho, C.T., and Huang, H.I. (1995). Effects of three dietary phytochemicals from tea, rosemary and turmeric on inflammation-induced nitrite production. Cancer Lett 96, 23-29.
Chan, M.M., Huang, H.I., Fenton, M.R., and Fong, D. (1998). In vivo inhibition of nitric oxide synthase gene expression by curcumin, a cancer preventive natural product with anti-inflammatory properties. Biochem Pharmacol 55, 1955-1962.
Chen, H., Zuo, Y., and Deng, Y. (2001a). Separation and determination of flavonoids and other phenolic compounds in cranberry juice by high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr A 913, 387-395.
Chen, Y., Yang, L., and Lee, T.J. (2000). Oroxylin A inhibition of lipopolysaccharide-induced iNOS and COX-2 gene expression via suppression of nuclear factor-kappa B activation. Biochem Pharmacol 59, 1445-1457.
Chen, Y.C., Shen, S.C., Chen, L.G., Lee, T.J., and Yang, L.L. (2001b). Wogonin, baicalin, and baicalein inhibition of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase-2 gene expressions induced by nitric oxide synthase inhibitors and lipopolysaccharide. Biochem Pharmacol 61, 1417-1427.
Chichili, G.R., Nohr, D., Frank, J., Flaccus, A., Fraser, P.D., Enfissi, E.M., and Biesalski, H.K. (2006). Protective effects of tomato extract with elevated beta-carotene levels on oxidative stress in ARPE-19 cells. Br J Nutr 96, 643-649.
Cook, N.C., and Samman, S. (1996). Flavonoids-Chemistry, metabolism, cardioprotective effects and dietary sources. J Nutr Biochem 7, 66-67.
da Silva Porto, P.A., Laranjinha, J.A., and de Freitas, V.A. (2003). Antioxidant protection of low density lipoprotein by procyanidins: structure/activity relationships. Biochem Pharmacol 66, 947-954.
Faria, A., Calhau, C., de Freitas, V., and Mateus, N. (2006a). Procyanidins as antioxidants and tumor cell growth modulators. J Agric Food Chem 54, 2392-2397.
Faria, A., Mateus, N., de Freitas, V., and Calhau, C. (2006b). Modulation of MPP+ uptake by procyanidins in Caco-2 cells: involvement of oxidation/reduction reactions. FEBS Lett 580, 155-160.
Fellers, C., and Esselen, W. (1955). Cranberries and cranberry products. . Univ Mass Bull 481, 5-59.
Fitzpatrick, D., Coffey, R., and Jantzen, P. . ( 1997). Endothelium dependent vasorelaxing activity of wine, grapes, and other plant products. Washington DC:Am Chem Soc, 237-246.
Foo, L.Y., Lu, Y., Howell, A.B., and Vorsa, N. (2000a). The structure of cranberry proanthocyanidins which inhibit adherence of uropathogenic P-fimbriated Escherichia coli in vitro. Phytochemistry 54, 173-181.
Foo, L.Y., Lu, Y., Howell, A.B., and Vorsa, N. (2000b). A-Type proanthocyanidin trimers from cranberry that inhibit adherence of uropathogenic P-fimbriated Escherichia coli. J Nat Prod 63, 1225-1228.
Gamez, E.J., Luyengi, L., Lee, S.K., Zhu, L.F., Zhou, B.N., Fong, H.H., Pezzuto, J.M., and Kinghorn, A.D. (1998). Antioxidant flavonoid glycosides from Daphniphyllum calycinum. J Nat Prod 61, 706-708.
GU, L., A., K.M., F., H.J., Gary, B., Joanne, H., David, H., and L., P.R. (2003). Screening of foods containing proanthocyanidins and their structural characterization using LC-MS/MS and thiolytic degradation. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51, 7513-7521.
Guthrie, N. ( 2000). Effect of cranberry juice and products on human breast cancer cell growth. . FASEB J 14, 771.
Haffajee, A.D., and Socransky, S.S. (1994). Microbial etiological agents of destructive periodontal diseases. Periodontol 2000 5, 78-111.
Harborne, J.B. (1965). Charaterization of flavonoid glycosides by acidic and enzymic hydrolysis. Phytochemistry 4, 107-120.
Harborne, J.B. (1988). The Flavonoids. In Advances in Research since 1980. (Chapman and Hall: New York.).
Harborne, J.B. (1989). Plant phenolics. In Method in Plant Biochemistry (London, UK., Academic press).
Haslam, E. (1996). Natural polyphenols (vegetable tannins) as drugs: possible modes of action. J Nat Prod 59, 205-215.
Havsteen, B. (1983). Flavonoids, A class of natural products of high pharmacological potency. . Biochem Pharmacol 32, 1141-1148.
Hertog, M.G., Feskens, E.J., Hollman, P.C., Katan, M.B., and Kromhout, D. (1993). Dietary antioxidant flavonoids and risk of coronary heart disease: the Zutphen Elderly Study. Lancet 342, 1007-1011.
Hertog, M.G.L., Hollman, P.C.H., and Venema, D.P. (1992). Optimization of a quantitative HPLC determination of potentially anticarcinogenic flavonoids in vegetables and fruits. J Agric Food Chem 40, 1591-1598.
Ho, C.T., and Huang, M.T. (1992). Phenolic compounds in food. In Phenolic Compounds in Food and Their Effects on Health II (Washington, DC.).
Hodek, P., Trefil, P., and Stiborova, M. (2002). Flavonoids-potent and versatile biologically active compounds interacting with cytochromes P450. Chem Biol Interact 139, 1-21.
Hollman, P.C., de Vries, J.H., van Leeuwen, S.D., Mengelers, M.J., and Katan, M.B. (1995). Absorption of dietary quercetin glycosides and quercetin in healthy ileostomy volunteers. Am J Clin Nutr 62, 1276-1282.
Hong, V., and Wrolstad, R.E. (1986). Cranberry juice composition. J Assoc Off Anal Chem 69, 199-207.
Howell, A., Leahy, M., Kurowska, E., and Guthrie, N. ( 2001). In vivo evidence that cranberry proanthocyanidins inhibit adherence of P-fimbriated E.coli bacteria to uroepithelial cells. FASEB J 15, 284.
Howell, A.B., Vorsa, N., Der Marderosian, A., and Foo, L.Y. (1998). Inhibition of the adherence of P-fimbriated Escherichia coli to uroepithelial-cell surfaces by proanthocyanidin extracts from cranberries. N Engl J Med 339, 1085-1086.
Ioku, K., Tsushida, T., Takei, Y., Nakatani, N., and Terao, J. (1995). Antioxidative activity of quercetin and quercetin monoglucosides in solution and phospholipid bilayers. Biochim Biophys Acta 1234, 99-104.
Joslyn, M.A., and Goldstein, J.L. (1964). Astringency of fruits and fruit products in relation to phenolic content. Adv Food Res 13, 179-217.
Julkunen-Tiitto, R. (1985). Phenolic constituents in the leaves of northern willows: methods for the analysis of certain phenolics. J Agric Food Chem 33, 213-217.
Kanner, J., Frankek, E., Granet, R., German, B., and Kinsella, J. E. (1994). Nature antioxidants in grapes and wines. J Agric Food Chem 42, 64-69.
Kari, P. (1991). Tanaina Plantlore. Alaska Native Lang Cen 3rd ed, 67-69.
King, A., Gottlieb, E., Brooks, D.G., Murphy, M.P., and Dunaief, J.L. (2004). Mitochondria-derived reactive oxygen species mediate blue light-induced death of retinal pigment epithelial cells. Photochem Photobiol 79, 470-475.
Kresty, L.A., Howell, A.B., and Baird, M. (2008). Cranberry proanthocyanidins induce apoptosis and inhibit acid-induced proliferation of human esophageal adenocarcinoma cells. J Agric Food Chem 56, 676-680.
Labrecque, J., Bodet, C., Chandad, F., and Grenier, D. (2006). Effects of a high-molecular-weight cranberry fraction on growth, biofilm formation and adherence of Porphyromonas gingivalis. J Antimicrob Chemother 58, 439-443.
Lavigne, J.P., Bourg, G., Combescure, C., Botto, H., and Sotto, A. (2008). In-vitro and in-vivo evidence of dose-dependent decrease of uropathogenic Escherichia coli virulence after consumption of commercial Vaccinium macrocarpon (cranberry) capsules. Clin Microbiol Infect 14, 350-355.
Lea, A.G.H., Bridle, P., Timberlake, C.F., and Singleton, V.L. (1979). The procyanidins of white grapes and wines. Am J Enol Vitic 30, 289-300.
Lin, Y.L., and Lin, J.K. (1997). (-)-Epigallocatechin-3-gallate blocks the induction of nitric oxide synthase by down-regulating lipopolysaccharide-
induced activity of transcription factor nuclear factor-kappa B. Mol Pharmacol 52, 465-472.
Lin, Y.L., Tsai, S.H., Lin-Shiau, S.Y., Ho, C.T., and Lin, J.K. (1999). Theaflavin-3,3''-digallate from black tea blocks the nitric oxide synthase by down-regulating the activation of NF-kappa B in macrophages. Eur J Pharmacol 367, 379-388.
Liu, Y., Gallardo-Moreno, A.M., Pinzon-Arango, P.A., Reynolds, Y., Rodriguez, G., and Camesano, T.A. (2008). Cranberry changes the physicochemical surface properties of E. coli and adhesion with uroepithelial cells. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces.
Loo, G. (2003). Redox-sensitive mechanisms of phytochemical-mediated inhibition of cancer cell proliferation (review). J Nutr Biochem 14, 64-73.
Lopes, G.K., Schulman, H. M., and Hermes-Lima, M. (1999). Polyphenol tannic acid inhibits hydroxyl radical formation from Fenton reaction by complexing ferrous ions. . Biochem Biophys Acta 1472, 142-152.
Maatta-Riihinen, K.R., Kahkonen, M.P., Torronen, A.R., and Heinonen, I.M. (2005). Catechins and procyanidins in berries of Vaccinium species and their antioxidant activity. J Agric Food Chem 53, 8485-8491.
Macheix, J.J., Fleuriet, P. and Billot, J. (1990). Fruit phenolics. CRC Press, FL 113.
Manach, C., Morand, C., and Demigne, C. (1997). Bioavailability of rutin and quercetin in rats. FEBS Lett 409, 12-16.
Mares-Perlman, J.A., Klein, B.E., Klein, R., and Ritter, L.L. (1994). Relation between lens opacities and vitamin and mineral supplement use. Ophthalmology 101, 315-325.
Moerman, D. (1986). Medicinal Plants of Native America. Univ Mich Museum Anthropology 1, 910.
Moyer, R.A., Hummer, K.E., Finn, C.E., Frei, B., and Wrolstad, R.E. (2002). Anthocyanins, phenolics, and antioxidant capacity in diverse small fruits: vaccinium, rubus, and ribes. J Agric Food Chem 50, 519-525.
Naczk, M., Nicholas, T., Pink, D., and Sosulski, F. (1994). Condensed tannins in canola hulls. J Agric Food Chem 42, 2196-2199.
Ofek, I., Goldhar, J., Zafriri, D., Lis, H., Adar, R., and Sharon, N. (1991). Anti-Escherichia coli adhesin activity of cranberry and blueberry juices. N Engl J Med 324, 1599.
Okuda, T., Yoshida, T., and Hatano, T. (1991). Chemistry and biological activity of tannins in medicimal plants. Plant Research 5, 129-165.
Paolini, M., and Nestle, M. (2003). Pitfalls of enzyme-based molecular anticancer dietary manipulations: food for thought. Mutat Res 543, 181-189.
Parry, J., Su, L., Moore, J., Cheng, Z., Luther, M., Rao, J.N., Wang, J.Y., and Yu, L.L. (2006). Chemical compositions, antioxidant capacities, and antiproliferative activities of selected fruit seed flours. J Agric Food Chem 54, 3773-3778.
Pietta, P.G. (2000). Flavonoids as antioxidants. J Nat Prod 63, 1035-1042.
Puski, G., and Francis, F. (1967). Flavonol glycosides in cranberries. Food Sci 32, 527-530.
Reed, J., Krueger, C., and Porter, M. (2001). Cranberry juice powder decrease low density lipoprotein cholesterol in hypercholesterolemic swine. . FASEB J 15, 54.
Rice-Evans, C.A., Miller, N.J., and Paganga, G. (1996). Structure-antioxidant activity relationships of flavonoids and phenolic acids. Free Radic Biol Med 20, 933-956.
Roy, U.H. (2002). Cranberry Fruit Vaccinium macrocarpon Ation. American Herbal Pharmacopoeia and Therapeutic Compendium.
Ruel, G., and Couillard, C. (2007). Evidences of the cardioprotective potential of fruits: the case of cranberries. Mol Nutr Food Res 51, 692-701.
Ruel, G., Pomerleau, S., Couture, P., Lemieux, S., Lamarche, B., and Couillard, C. (2008). Low-calorie cranberry juice supplementation reduces plasma oxidized LDL and cell adhesion molecule concentrations in men. Br J Nutr 99, 352-359.
Schieber, A., Keller, P., and Carle, R. (2001). Determination of phenolic acids and flavonoids of apple and pear by high-performance liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr A 910, 265-273.
Schmid, P. (1977). Long term investigation with regard to the constituents of various cranberry varieties(Vaccinium macrocarpon Ation). Acta Hort 61, 241-254.
Seddon, J.M., Christen, W.G., Manson, J.E., LaMotte, F.S., Glynn, R.J., Buring, J.E., and Hennekens, C.H. (1994). The use of vitamin supplements and the risk of cataract among US male physicians. Am J Public Health 84, 788-792.
Shahidi, F., and Wanasundara, P.K. (1992). Phenolic antioxidants. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 32, 67-103.
Simonetti, P., Ciappellano, S., Gardana, C., Bramati, L., and Pietta, P. (2002). Procyanidins from Vitis vinifera seeds: in vivo effects on oxidative stress. J Agric Food Chem 50, 6217-6221.
Smith, D.A., and Banks, W. (1986). Biosynthesis, elicitation and biological activity of isoflavonoid phytoalexyns. Phytochem 25, 979-995.
Spector, A. (1995). Oxidative stress-induced cataract: mechanism of action. FASEB J 9, 1172-1182.
Sperduto, R.D., Hu, T.S., Milton, R.C., Zhao, J.L., Everett, D.F., Cheng, Q.F., Blot, W.J., Bing, L., Taylor, P.R., Li, J.Y., et al. (1993). The Linxian cataract studies. Two nutrition intervention trials. Arch Ophthalmol 111, 1246-1253.
Stinson, A.M., Wiegand, R.D., and Anderson, R.E. (1991). Recycling of docosahexaenoic acid in rat retinas during n-3 fatty acid deficiency. J Lipid Res 32, 2009-2017.
Strumeyer, D.H., and Malin, M.J. (1975). Condensed tannins in grain sorghum: isolation, fractionation, and characterization. J Agric Food Chem 23, 909-914.
Sun, B.S., Conceicüa˜o, L., Jorge M. Ricardo da Silva, and Isabel Spranger, (1998). Separation of Grape and Wine Proanthocyanidins According to Their Degree of Polymerization. J Agric Food Chem 46, 1390-1396.
Taylor, A., Jacques, P.F., and Epstein, E.M. (1995). Relations among aging, antioxidant status, and cataract. Am J Clin Nutr 62, 1439S-1447S.
Van der Hagen, A.M., Yolton, D.P., Kaminski, M.S., and Yolton, R.L. (1993). Free radicals and antioxidant supplementation: a review of their roles in age-related macular degeneration. J Am Optom Assoc 64, 871-878.
Vinson, J.A., Su, X., Zubik, L., and Bose, P. (2001). Phenol antioxidant quantity and quality in foods: fruits. J Agric Food Chem 49, 5315-5321.
Wang, C.K., and Wu, M. J. (1996). Separation of phenolics from Piper betel leaf andthe effect on the mutagenicity of arecoline. . J Chin Agric Chem Soc 34, 638-647.
Wang, C.K., and Lee, W.H. (1996). Separation, Characteristics, and Biological Activities of Phenolics in Areca Fruit. J Agric Food Chem 44, 2014-2019.
Wang, H., Cao, G.H., and Prior, a.R.L. (1997). Oxygen radical absorbing capacity of anthocyanins. J Agric Food Chem 45(2), 304 -309.
Wang, R.J. (1975). Lethal effect of "daylight" fluorescent light on human cells in tissue-culture medium. Photochem Photobiol 21, 373-375.
Watt, B., Merrill, A., Adams, C., Orr, M., and, and Miller, D. (1975). Handbook of the Nutritional Contents of Foods. New York Dover 8, 190.
Weiss, E.I., Houri-Haddad, Y., Greenbaum, E., Hochman, N., Ofek, I., and Zakay-Rones, Z. (2005). Cranberry juice constituents affect influenza virus adhesion and infectivity. Antiviral Res 66, 9-12.
Wilson, T., Porcari, J.P., and Harbin, D. (1998). Cranberry extract inhibits low density lipoprotein oxidation. Life Sci 62, PL381-386.
Wrona, M., Rozanowska, M., and Sarna, T. (2004). Zeaxanthin in combination with ascorbic acid or alpha-tocopherol protects ARPE-19 cells against photosensitized peroxidation of lipids. Free Radic Biol Med 36, 1094-1101.
Wu, J., Seregard, S., Spangberg, B., Oskarsson, M., and Chen, E. (1999). Blue light induced apoptosis in rat retina. Eye 13 ( Pt 4), 577-583.
Yamakoshi, J., Saito, M., Kataoka, S., and Tokutake, S. (2002). Procyanidin-rich extract from grape seeds prevents cataract formation in hereditary cataractous (ICR/f) rats. J Agric Food Chem 50, 4983-4988.
Yan, X., Murphy, B.T., Hammond, G.B., Vinson, J.A., and Neto, C.C. (2002). Antioxidant activities and antitumor screening of extracts from cranberry fruit (Vaccinium macrocarpon). J Agric Food Chem 50, 5844-5849.
Zhang, L., Ma, J., Pan, K., Go, V.L., Chen, J., and You, W.C. (2005). Efficacy of cranberry juice on Helicobacter pylori infection: a double-blind, randomized placebo-controlled trial. Helicobacter 10, 139-145.
Zuo, Y., Wang, C., and Zhan, J. (2002). Separation, characterization, and quantitation of benzoic and phenolic antioxidants in American cranberry fruit by GC-MS. J Agric Food Chem 50, 3789-3794.