本論文研究目的在分析台灣高中學生在英語動詞形式與動詞補詞句型所犯的錯誤型態及各類型之錯誤頻率。以便能找出在英語動詞領域上的學習困難。本研究的要旨在鑑定可能造成犯錯的各種因素，了解學生在學習與寫作過程中所採用的策略，並探討不同程度之學生在寫作上所犯錯誤之類型與犯錯誤頻率之差異，以便能提供改進英文語法與英文寫作教學的適當方法。研究對象為1,076位台灣高中學生。總共有1,076篇短篇作文被收集，其中948篇被挑選為分析用的寫作資料。所有文章皆經由兩位參加過聯考批改英文作文，經驗豐富的老師交換批閱，評定為三個不同寫作能力的等級。　　所有語料所發現的錯誤分成三個主要類型：限定動詞之錯誤，非限定動詞之錯誤及動詞補語句型之錯誤。然後該三主要類型再依序分成次要類型。錯誤分析重點集中於限定動詞的四個系統--時態、狀態、語態與語氣；非限定動詞三個領域--不定詞、動名詞與分詞；以及六個動詞補語句型--純不及物動詞型，單賓動詞型，雙賓動詞型，複合不及物動詞型，複合及物動詞型以及雙字或多字動詞型。　　分析結果顯示目標語言在較複雜及具變化傾向的形式及句型，得到相對較高的錯誤頻率，也對學習英語的台灣學生較具困難度。顯然這種結果與艾克曼(Eckman)所提出的標示差異理論(Markedness Differential Hypothesis )相互符合。該理論聲明假如目標語言的形式不同於母語之對應形式，或者目標語言形式是變化型或較具變異性，而母語之對應形式是基本型或較不具變異性，則這種目標語言之形式較難學習。 　　分析結果亦顯示：母語干擾是導致犯錯的重要因素。然而語言間之差異並非二語學習犯錯的唯一原因。有些錯誤是由於目標語言動詞型、語法規則、語意內涵之複雜性所造成的。有些錯誤則由於學生在學習寫作過程所應用的策略造成的，這種學習寫作策略包括逃避、類推、簡化、過度修正、以偏蓋全．．．等。還有一些錯誤則是學生缺乏練習或老師在課堂上不當舉例或不當訓練方法所造成的。 　　不同程度各組間多重比較分析結果顯示：在大部份動詞類型裡，高程度的學生與中程度的學生其犯錯頻率有顯著差異，而中程度學生與低程度學生亦如此。分析結果同時顯示：具較高語文能力的學生比具較低語文能力的學生顯然在大部份表層次的動詞型遭遇相對低的難度。 　　本研究最後依分析結果，提出相關的教學建議及減少各類錯誤的適當方法，希望本研究能鼓舞英語教學界同行們一起朝該目標努力，以期突破，有效解決動詞形式與動詞補語句型教學上的問題。 關鍵詞 : 動詞補語，學習策略，限定動詞，非限定動詞，標示差異理論，母語轉換，逃避，類推，簡化，過度修正，以偏概全。

This study is basically pedagogical. It aims to analyze the error types of the English verb forms and verb complementation patterns committed by Taiwanese EFL students in order to find out the students’ difficulties with this area of grammar learning. Its purpose is to identify the possible factors for committing such kinds of errors, to understand the strategies taken by the EFL students in the process of writing, to investigate the differences between the error frequencies made by students with different levels of language proficiency, and to suggest a proper way to improve or adjust the grammar and composition teaching in EFL classrooms. The subjects were composed of 1,076 Taiwanese EFL students. A total of 1,076 short essays were collected, and for data analysis 948 compositions were selected. They were assessed through inter-rater grading and then divided into three groups with different levels of writing ability or language proficiency. All the errors found in the corpus were classified into three main categories: errors with finite verbs, errors with non-finite verbs, and errors with verb complementation patterns. Then these three major error types were sub-classified into subcategories. The analysis work focused on four points of the finite verbs: tense, aspect, voice, and mood; three areas of non-finite verbs: infinitives, gerunds and participles; and six major verb complementation patterns: intransitive verb patterns, monotrasitive verb patterns, ditransitive verb patterns, complex-intransitive or copular verb patterns, complex-transitive verb patterns, and multi-word verb patterns. The analysis results show that the forms and patterns that have complex rules or are more marked in the target language (TL) enjoy relatively higher error frequencies and are generally more difficult for Taiwanese EFL writers. Such results appear to conform to Eckman’s Markedness Differential Hypothesis (Eckman, 1977), which says that a TL form will be difficult to learn if it is different from the corresponding L1 form, and if the TL form is marked or more marked while the L1 form is unmarked or less marked. The analysis results also show that L1 transfer appears to be one of the most important factors for committing writing errors. However, cross-linguistic influence is not the sole factor for EFL learners’ errors. Some errors probably are due to the intralingual complexities of the verb system, the syntactic rule, and the semantic implication of the target language. Other errors seem to be caused by the learning or communication strategies employed by the EFL writers, including avoidance, analogy, simplification, hypercorrection, and overgeneralization. Still others are probably caused by students’ insufficient practice or induced by improper ways in which EFL teachers give examples and arrange practice opportunities. Multiple comparisons among the error frequency counts across groups show that students with high-level language proficiency made significantly lower error frequencies than those with middle-level proficiency, who in turn made significantly lower error frequencies than those with low-level proficiency in most categories and subcategories of verb constructions. Analysis results indicates that EFL writers with higher language proficiency encountered relatively less difficulty with most surface-level forms and patterns than those with lower proficiency. Finally, pedagogical implications were provided, and proper ways of reducing each error type were suggested. It is hoped that the present study will encourage all the fellow EFL instructors to move in the same direction so that we can achieve a final breakthrough in our efforts to solve the problem of the learning in both verb forms and verb complements. Key Words: verb complementation, learning strategy, finite verbs, non-finite verbs, Markedness Differential Hypothesis, L1 transfer, avoidance, analogy, simplification, hypercorrection, overgeneralization

Chapter Page 1. Introduction ……………………………………….………………………… 1 1.1. Background of the Study……………………………………………..… 2 1.2. Purposes of the Study ………………………………………………….. 6 1.3. Research Questions…………………………………………………….. 7 1.4. Delimitation and Generalizability…………….………………………… 7 1.5. Criteria for Identifying Errors …………………………………………. 7 1.6. Significance of the Study …………………………………………….... 10 1.7. Definition of Terms ……………………………………………………. 12 2. A Review of Related Literature ……………………………………………. 24 2.1. Structure and Classification of Verbs and Verb Phrases ………………. 24 2.1.1. Verb Classes ……………………………………………………. 30 2.1.2. Verb Forms ……………………………………………………... 32 2.1.3. Verb Systems …………………………………………………… 35 2.2. The Theories of Tense and Aspect Systems …………………………… 36 2.2.1. Various Accounts for Tense …………………………………….. 37 2.2.2. Controversies over Future Tense ……………………………….. 45 2.2.3. Various Accounts of Aspect …………………………………….. 49 2.2.4. The Tense-Aspect System in Mandarin Chinese ………………. 53 2.2.4.1. Grammatical Aspect in Mandarin Chinese ……………… 54 2.2.4.2. Lexical Aspect in Mandarin Chinese ……………………. 58 2.3. Theories of Modal System …………………………………………….. 61 2.3.1. Mood and Modality …………………………………………….. 62 2.3.2. Grammatical Types of Modality ……………………………….. 64 2.3.3. Linguistic Expression of Mood and Modality …………….……. 65 2.3.4. Types of Modality ………………………………………….…… 66 2.4. Theories of Voice in English and Chinese …..…………………….…… 68 2.4.1. Voice Constraints …………………………………………….…. 70 2.4.1.1. Verb Constraints ……………………………………….….. 70 2.4.1.2. Object Constraints …………………………………….….. 72 2.4.1.3. Agent Constraints ………………………………………… 73 3.4.1.4. Meaning Constraints ……………………………………… 74 2.4.2. Passive Classes …………………………………………………. 74 2.4.2.1. Agentive Passives …………………………………………. 75 2.4.2.2. Quasi-Passives ……………………………………………. 76 2.4.2.3. Non-Agentive Passives …………………………………… 77 2.4.3. The Passive Construction in Mandarin Chinese ………………... 77 2.4.3.1. Use and Function of the Passive in Mandarin Chinese …… 79 2.5. Verb Complementation Patterns………………………………………... 81 2.5.1. Complements vs. Adjuncts ……………………………………... 82 2.5.2. Verb Patterns and Sentence Structures …………………………. 85 2.6. Approaches to Writing and Studies of Teaching L2 Writing ………….. 92 2.6.1. Three Major Approaches to Writing ………………………….... 93 2.6.2. Studies of Second Language (L2) Writing ...…………………… 95 2.6.2.1. Studies of Contrastive Rhetoric and Writing Across Cultures …………………………………………. 96 2.6.2.2. Studies in Errors in L2 Writing ………………………….. 98 2.6.2.3. Studies of Errors and Error Analysis ……………………. 99 2.6.2.4. Studies of ESL and EFL Learners Systems ……………... 103 2.6.2.5. Studies of Error Correction and Effects of Correction Feedback …………………………………… 108 2.7. Studies of English Verbal Systems …………………..……………….. 109 2.8. Studies of VP Constructions in Taiwan …………………….………… 114 3. Methodology ……………………………………………………………….122 3.1. Subjects ………………………………………………………………. 122 3.2. Instruments …………………………………………………………… 124 3.2.1. English Writing Tasks …………………………………………. 125 3.2.2. Rubric of Holistic Writing Assessment ……………………….. 125 3.2.3. Inter-Rater Grading …………………………………………… 126 3.2.4. SPSS Software and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) ……… … 127 3.3. Procedures ……………………………………………………………. 127 3.3.1. Data Collection ………………………………………………... 128 3.3.2. Composition Grading …………………………………………. 129 3.3.3. Grouping ……………………………………………………… 129 3.4. Identification of Errors ………………………………………………. 131 3.5. Classification of Errors Types ……………………………………….. 132 3.6. Data Analyses and Statistics of Errors ………………………………. 140 4. Analysis and Discussion ……………………………………………………142 4.1. An Overall Description …………………………………….…………. 142 4.2. Error Scores ……………………………………………….………….. 144 4.3. Errors with Finite Verbs …………………………………….………… 146 4.3.1. Tense and Aspect Errors ……………………………….……….. 147 4.3.1.1. Errors with Simple Present Tense ………………………… 149 4.3.1.1.1. Errors with Subject-Verb Concord ………………… 149 4.3.1.1.2. Misuse of Tense Form …………………….……….. 156 4.3.1.1.3. Inappropriate Choice of Verbs …………….……….. 159 4.3.1.1.4. Errors in Spelling ………………………….………. 160 4.3.1.2. Errors with Simple Past Tense ……………………………. 161 4.3.1.2.1. Errors with Non-marking of Past Tense Verbs ….…. 163 4.3.1.2.2. Overgeneralization of Irregular Verbs as Regular Ones ……………………………………..... 165 4.3.1.2.3. Misuse of Tense Forms …………………………….. 166 4.3.1.2.4. Confusion or Misspelling of Past Tense Verbs …...... 167 4.3.1.2.5. Wrong Choice of Lexical Verbs ……………………. 168 4.3.1.2.6. Errors with Subject-Verb Concord …………………. 169 4.4.1.3. Errors with Present Perfect Tense …………………………. 169 4.3.1.3.1. Misuse of Other Tense Forms for Present Perfect …. 171 4.3.1.3.2. Confusion of Punctual Verbs with Durative Ones …. 177 4.3.1.3.3. Wrong Marking of Past Participles ………………… 179 4.3.1.3.4. Wrong Choice of Verbs ..…………………….……... 180 4.3.1.3.5. Errors with Subject-Verb concord ………………….. 181 4.3.1.4. Errors with Past Perfect Tense ……………………………... 182 4.3.1.4.1. Misuse of Other Forms for Past Perfect …………….. 183 4.3.1.4.2. Wrong Marking for Past Participle …………………. 186 4.3.1.5. Errors with the Present Progressive Aspect ………………... 187 4.3.1.6. Errors with the Past Progressive Aspect …………………… 189 4.3.1.7. Errors with Sequence of Tense …………………………….. 191 4.3.1.7.1. Errors with Natural Sequence of Tense …………….. 193 4.3.1.7.2. Errors with Attracted Sequence of Tense …………… 194 4.3.2. Voice and Transitivity Errors …………………………………….. 195 4.3.2.1. Confusion of the Transitivity of Verbs ……………………... 197 4.3.2.1.1. Misuse of Intransitive verbs for Transitive …………. 197 4.3.2.1.2. Misuse of Transitive Verbs for Intransitive …………. 198 4.3.2.1.3. Misuse of Monotransitive Verbs for Ditransitive …… 200 4.3.2.2. Errors with the Conjugation in Passive Construction ……… 201 4.3.2.3. Errors with Quasi-Passives ………………………………… 202 4.3.2.4. Errors in Voice Constraints ………………………………… 204 4.3.2.5. Errors with Redundant Objects ……………………………. 206 4.3.2.6. Errors with Subject-Verb Concord …………………………. 207 4.3.3. Errors with Mood and Modality …………………………………. 209 4.3.3.1. Errors with Modal Auxiliaries ……………………………... 210 4.3.3.2. Errors with Subjunctive Mood ……………………………... 213 4.3.3.2.1. Errors with the Unreal past Tense …………………... 216 4.3.3.2.2. Errors with the Unreal Past Perfect Tense ………….. 219 4.3.3.3. Errors with Imperative Mood ………………………………. 222 4.3.4. Miscellaneous Errors …………………………………………….. 223 4.4. Errors with Non-finite Verbs …………………………………………… 224 4.4.1. Infinitive Errors …………………………………………………. 225 4.4.1.1. Errors with Infinitive Marker to …………………………….. 225 4.4.1.2. Misuse of Other Forms for Infinitives ……………………… 227 4.4.1.3. Confusion of Infinitives with Clauses ………………………. 227 4.4.1.4. Wrong Use of Displaced Subjects ………………………….. 228 4.4.2. Gerund Errors …………………………………………………… 229 4.4.2.1. Misuse of Uninflected Base Forms with Gerunds ………….. 230 4.4.2.2. Confusion of Infinitives with Gerunds ……………………... 231 4.4.2.3. Inappropriate Substitution of Gerunds for Nouns …………... 232 4.4.2.4. Errors with the Voice of Gerunds …………………………… 232 4.4.2.5. Misuse of Finite Verbs for Gerunds ………………………… 233 4.4.3. Participle Errors ………………………………………………… 234 4.4.3.1. Misuse of Finite Verbs for Participles ……………………… 235 4.4.3.2. Confusion between Present and Past Participles …………… 236 4.4.3.3. Dangling Participles ………………………………………… 237 4.4.3.4. Ill-formed Participles ………………………………….......... 238 4.4.4. Miscellaneous Errors …………………………………………… 239 4.5. Errors with Verb Complementation Patterns …………………………... 239 4.5.1. Errors with Intransitive Verb Patterns …………………………... 241 4.5.1.1. Errors with Pattern V#.............................................................. 242 4.5.1.2. Errors with Pattern V+Adverbial Adjunct ….……………….. 243 4.5.1.3. Errors with Pattern V+Particle ..……………………………. 246 4.5.2. Errors with Monotransitive Verb Patterns ………………………. 246 4.5.2.1. Errors with Pattern V+NP ………..…………………………. 248 4.5.2.2. Errors with Pattern V+Non-Finite Clause ………….………. 251 4.5.2.3. Errors with Pattern V+Finite Clause ……………….………. 257 4.5.3. Errors with Ditransitive Verb Patterns ………………………….. 260 4.5.3.1. Errors with Pattern V+O+Prep.+ O …………….………….. 262 4.5.3.2. Errors with Pattern V+O+that-/wh-Clause …..……………... 264 4.5.3.3. Errors with Pattern V+O+(Conjunctive)+to-Infinitive ……... 265 4.5.3.4. Errors with Pattern V+Prep.+ O+that-/wh-Clause …….…… 265 4.5.4. Errors with Complex-Intransitive or Copular Verb Patterns …… 266 4.5.4.1. Errors with Pattern VCs ..……………………………………. 269 4.5.4.1.1.Errors with Pattern V+AdjP/NP……....………………. 269 4.5.4.1.2.Errors with Pattern V+AdjP+Post-Modification …….. 270 4.5.4.1.3.Errors with Anticipatory Subject It …………………… 271 4.5.4.1.4.Improper Omission of Complementizer That ………… 272 4.5.4.2. Errors with Pattern VA ………………………………..……... 273 4.5.5. Errors with Complex-Transitive Verb Patterns …………………. 274 4.5.5.1. Errors with Pattern VOC ……………………………………. 276 4.5.5.1.1.Errors with Pattern V+O+AdjP/NP …..………………. 276 4.5.5.1.2.Errors with Pattern V+O+Bare Infinitive …………….. 277 4.5.5.1.3.Errors with Pattern V+O+Present Participle ..…….…. 279 4.5.5.1.4.Errors with Pattern V+O+Past Participle …….……… 280 4.5.5.2. Errors with Pattern VOA .…………………………………… 281 4.5.6. Errors with Multi-Word Verb Patterns …………..……………… 282 4.5.6.1. Errors with Prepositional Verb Patterns …………………….. 283 4.5.6.2. Errors with Phrasal Verb Patterns …………………………... 284 4.5.6.3. Errors with Phrasal-Prepositional Verb Patterns ……………. 285 4.5.7. Miscellaneous Errors …………………………………………….. 286 4.6. Multiple Comparisons among Error Frequencies across Groups ………. 286 4.7. Results and major Findings of the Study ……………………………….. 291 4.7.1. Error Frequency Counts and Hierarchical Difficulty ……………. 291 4.7.2. Factors for Errors Committed …………………………………… 293 4.7.3. Differences among Error Frequencies and Difficulty Extents in Relation to Proficiency Levels ………………………………….. 296 5. Conclusion …………………………………………………………………... 298 5.1. Summary of the Study ………………………………………………….. 298 5.2. Indications of the Analysis ……..………………………………………. 299 5.2.1. Indications of Error Frequency Counts ……..…………………... 300 5.2.2. Indications of Different Error Frequencies in Relation to Proficiency Levels …………………………………………………………… 305 5.3. Implications for Grammar and Composition Instruction in EFL Classrooms ……………………………………………………………... 308 5.4. Recommendations for Further Studies …………………………………. 318 Notes …………………………………………………………………………… 320 References ……………………………………………………………………… 326 Appendix A: Writing Tasks ……………………………………………………340 Appendix B: A Rubric for Holistic Scoring of ESL Essays ………………….. 341 Appendix C: An Example of Error Identification and Error Classification ….. 342 Appendix D: Error Types Committed …………….………………………….. 344 Appendix E: Examples of Students’ Compositions and Error Corrections ….. 376 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1.1. Dynamic Use and Stative Use of Verbs Compared ……………………… 17 1.2. Lexical Aspect 1 …………………………………………………………. 20 1.3. Lexical Aspect 2 …………………………………………………………. 20 2.1. Inflectional Forms of Verbs ……………………………………………... 25 2.2. Inflectional Forms of the Verb Following Auxiliaries …………………... 29 2.3. The Basic Paradigm for the Verb TAKE ………………………………… 32 2.4. The Paradigm of the Verb TAKE by Huddleston ………………………... 33 2.5. Verb Forms ………………………………………………………………. 34 2.6. Verb Systems …………………………………………………………….. 36 2.7. The Tense System Based on GT Grammar ……………………………… 49 2.8. Semantic Features of Vendler’s Aspectual Categories …………………... 52 2.9. Lexical Aspectual Categories in Mandarin Chinese …………………….. 60 2.10. Epistemic and Deontic Modality Compared …………………………… 68 2.11. Forms of the Active and Passive VPs ………………………………….. 69 3.1. Distribution of the Subjects …………………………………………….. 122 3.2. Selected Students and Grouping Components ………………………….. 130 4.1. Number of Verbs Produced in the Selected Compositions …….……….. 143 4.2. Numbers and Percentages of Errors Found in the Compositions ……… 144 4.3. Number and Percentage of Each Error Type in Relation to the Total Errors………………………………………………………. 145 4.4. Numbers and Percentages of Errors with Finite Verbs in Relation to the Actual Occurrences of Verbs …………………………………………… 146 4.5. Distribution and Percentage of Each Error Type with Tense and Aspect... 148 4.6. Distribution of Errors Found with Simple Present Tense ………………. 149 4.7. Distribution of Errors Found with Subject-Verb Concord in the Area of Simple Present Tense………………………………………………… 151 4.8. Distribution of Errors Found with Simple Past Tense ………………….. 163 4.9. Distribution of Errors Found with Present Perfect Tense ………………. 171 4.10. Distribution of Errors with Past Perfect Tense ………………………... 183 4.11. Distribution of Errors with Sequence of Tense ………………………… 193 4.12. Distribution and Percentage of Errors with Voice and Transitivity …… 196 4.13. Distribution and Percentage of Errors with the Transitivity of Verbs …. 197 4.14. Number and Percentage of Each error Type with Mood and Modality… 210 4.15. Form and Meaning of the Unreal Tense in Contrast ………………….. 214 Table Page 4.16. Number and Percentage of Errors Found with Subjunctive Mood …..….. 215 4.17. Distribution of Errors Found with the Unreal Past Tense ……………… 216 4.18. Distribution and Percentage of Each Error Type with the Unreal Past Perfect Tense …………………………………………………………... 220 4.19. Distribution of Errors with Non-finite Verb constructions …………….. 224 4.20. Distribution and Percentage of Each Error Type with Infinitives …….... 225 4.21. Distribution and Percentage of Each Error Type with Gerunds ………… 229 4.22. Distribution and Percentage of Each Error Type with Participles ………. 234 4.23. Distribution and Percentage of Errors with Verb Complementation Patterns ………………………………………………………………… 240 4.24. Distribution and Percentage of Each Error Type with Intransitive Verb Patterns ………………………………………………………………… 242 4.25. Distribution and Percentage of Each Error Type with Monotransitive Verb Patterns ………………………………………………………………… 247 4.26. Distribution and Percentage of Each error Type with Ditransitive Verb Patterns ………………………………………………………………… 262 4.27. Distribution and Percentage of Each Error Type with Complex-Intransitive Verb Patterns ……………………………………………………………. 268 4.28. Distribution and Percentage of Each Error Type with Complex-Transitive Verb Patterns …………………………………………………………….. 275 4.29. Distribution and Percentage of Each Error Type with Multi-Word Verb Patterns ……..…………………………………………………………… 283 4.30. ANOVA of Three Major Error Types across Groups …………………….. 287 4.31. ANOVA of errors with Finite Verbs ……………………………………… 288 4.32. ANOVA of Errors with Non-finite Verbs ………………………………… 289 4.33. ANOVA of Errors with Verb Complementation Patterns ………………… 290 5.1. Relative Frequency of Each Error Type with Finite Verb Constructions .…. 302 5.2. Relative Frequency of Each Error Type with Non-Finite Verb Construction ………………………………………………………………. 302 5.3. Relative Frequency of Each Error Type with Verb Complementation Patterns …………………………………………………………………… 303 5.4. Relative Frequency of Each Error Type Made by Three Groups’ Students …………………………………………………………………... 305

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