臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

本研究是探討高雄市壽山地區台灣獼猴（Macaca cyclopis）成年雌猴之社會理毛在親屬、位序、年齡與季節變化之關係，主要的研究對象是C群與Cd群成年獼猴。從2000年8月到2003年2月止，歷經3個交配季與2個非交配季，共188個工作天，約1248.8個小時。實際記錄C群660.6小時，Cd群為244.5小時。研究期間C群成年雄猴有8-13隻，成年雌猴有14-15隻；Cd群成年雄猴有1-3隻，成年雌猴2-4隻。研究成年雌猴區分為高低位階及老年（>13歲）和年輕（5-12歲）。另於理毛對中，分別判定二者相對高低位序以及親屬或非親屬的關係。而成年雄猴則區分為群內雄猴與周邊雄猴兩類型。
成年雌猴個體之異體理毛活動佔本身日間行為的37.62% ± 13.59%（n = 15）。在台灣獼猴社會理毛活動中，成年雌猴給予嬰、幼猴理毛多於接受者（p < 0.001）。成年雌猴間的社會理毛活動在非交配季比較頻繁，約是交配季的2.12倍。無論在交配季或非交配季，成年雌猴與親屬雌猴間的理毛頻度皆高於和非親屬關係者（p < 0.001）。另外在交配季，成年雌猴與相對低、高位序成年雌猴理毛頻度受親屬關係影響（p < 0.05），不受個體位階影響。但以高階成年雌猴給予相對低位序親屬雌猴理毛的頻度最高（0.38 ± 0.40次/ 100 scans, n = 7）。在非交配季，成年雌猴與相對低位序雌猴理毛頻度受親屬關係影響（p < 0.05），以老年成年雌猴與相對低位序親屬雌猴的理毛頻度最高（1.57 ± 1.74次/ 100 scans, n = 8）。相對的，年輕成年雌猴比老年者與相對高位序親屬雌猴的理毛頻度高（p < 0.05）。
季節、親屬關係對成年雌猴給予或接受成年雌猴理毛之頻度皆有顯著影響（兩者p < 0.01）。成年雌猴和相對低位序成年雌猴理毛頻度受親屬關係及季節之影響（p < 0.01），以非交配季成年雌猴和相對低位序親屬雌猴的理毛頻度最高，100次掃瞄中有1.25次（± 1.48, n = 11）。在沒有親屬關係下，低階成年雌猴比高階成年雌猴給相對高位序雌猴較多的理毛頻度（p < 0.05）。成年雌猴間的社會理毛次數有65%發生在親屬雌猴之間。40%成年雌猴給親屬雌猴理毛比例高於給非親屬者，20%給非親屬雌猴理毛比例高於給親屬者。而40%成年雌猴與親屬、非親屬雌猴理毛無顯著差異。而非親屬成年雌猴間的社會理毛有8.68%為互惠理毛。
成年雌猴給或接受親屬雌猴理毛伙伴比例皆高於非親屬關係者（兩者p < 0.05）。成年雌猴接受高階雌猴理毛的伙伴比例高於接受低階者（p < 0.01）。而成年雌猴給或接受老年、年輕雌猴理毛伙伴比例則皆相近。另外成年雌猴無論給或接受成年雄猴之社會理毛頻度，在交配季皆比非交配季多（p < 0.05）。而高階成年雌猴比低階者與成年雄猴有較頻繁的社會理毛。
C和Cd群的成猴性別比在交配季相近（AM:AF = 1:1.8）。兩群成年雌猴與群內及周邊雄猴的社會理毛在交配季多於在非交配季。雄猴類別（群內、周邊雄猴）、社群（C、Cd群）對成年雄猴之間的理毛頻度在交配季有顯著影響（p < 0.05），但是在非交配季則無顯著影響（p > 0.1）。且群內雄猴比周邊雄猴有較多的理毛伙伴，其主要的理毛伙伴為成年雌猴。周邊雄猴則比群內雄猴有較多的雄猴理毛伙伴。另外在交配季，低階雄猴與優勢雄猴的理毛對中常為被理毛者，但是在非交配季則為理毛者。雄猴之間的衝突行為較常發生在交配季，且周邊雄猴間的衝突頻度是群內雄猴間的1.8倍（p < 0.05）。
壽山台灣獼猴C和Cd群成員異體理毛與自體理毛的偏好部位有相關性（p < 0.001）。獼猴異體理毛偏好於背部，而陰肛最少。自體理毛偏好於下肢部位，而背部和臉部則都沒有記錄資料。不同性別成年個體對獼猴頭部、背部、臉部理毛之頻度有顯著差異（p < 0.05）。有親屬關係之成年雌猴間頭部理毛之頻度多於非親屬關係者（p < 0.05）。而位階、年齡層對成年雌猴間的理毛部位則皆無顯著影響（所有p > 0.1）。
因此，壽山台灣獼猴社群成年雌猴的社會理毛應該是以親屬選擇為主要基礎。無親屬關係成年雌猴的社會理毛則可能藉由互惠理毛達到結盟或提升位序之目的。而成年雄猴與成年雌猴的社會理毛在交配季多於在非交配季，此應該與雄猴的交配策略有關。而周邊雄猴比群內雄猴有較多的雄猴理毛伙伴，則可能是以結盟為目的。

I have investigated the social grooming in kinship, rank, age and seasonal change among adult female Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) that inhabit Mt. Longevity, Kaohsiung. The major study groups were C and Cd groups. Field observations were conducted from August 2000 to February 2003 covering three mating seasons and two non-mating seasons. The observations covered a total of 188 work days including 1248.8 hours. I actually had recorded C group for 660.6 hours, and Cd group for 244.5 hours. During my study, C group consisted of 8-13 adult males and 14-15 adult females, while group Cd had 1-3 adult males and 2-4 adult females. In order to analyze grooming data, I divided 15 adult females into sub-groups such as dominant/ submissive groups, old (>13) /young age (5-12), relative higher/lower ranking and related/unrelated. I have also divided adult males into troop-males and periphery males.
Adult female allo-grooming activities accounted for 37.62% ± 13.59 (n = 15) of the behaviors in the daytime. I also found that adult females grooming infants and juveniles were greater than received from them (p < 0.001). The social grooming among adult females occurred mainly during non-mating seasons and its frequency was 2.12 times of mating seasons. Regardless of mating or non-mating seasons, the frequency of grooming among related females was significantly higher than among unrelated females (both p < 0.001). In addition, kinship affected the grooming frequency among female macaques with relative lower or higher ranking females during mating seasons (p < 0.05), while the dominant rank did not have the effect. However, the highest grooming frequency occurred in the high-ranking females who groomed relative lower ranking females within relatives (0.38 ± 0.40 bouts / 100 scans, n = 7). During non-mating seasons, kinship affected the grooming frequency among female macaques with relative lower ranking females (p < 0.05); the highest grooming frequency occurred in the old females who groomed relative lower ranking females within relatives (1.57 ± 1.74 bouts / 100 scans, n = 8).
Moreover, seasons (mating or non-mating) and kinship relationship had significant effects on grooming frequencies among female macaques (both giving and receiving p < 0.01), as well as on the grooming frequency of females groomed with relative lower ranking females (p < 0.01). The highest grooming frequency occurred on females groomed with relative lower ranking females within relatives during non-mating seasons (1.25 ± 1.48 bouts / 100 scans, n = 11).
Without kinship relationship, low-ranking females groomed relative higher ranking females more frequent than high-ranking females did (p < 0.05). Within adult females, 65% of social grooming was among relatives. However, 40% of adult females groomed equally with related and unrelated females, while 20% disproportionately groomed more with unrelated females than with related females. The grooming was kin-biased for 40%. About 8.68% of social grooming among unrelated females was being reciprocated.
On the other hand, the ratio of related grooming female partners to the total number of available related females was higher than that with unrelated females (p < 0.05). It also indicated that the ratio of each female received grooming from high-ranking grooming partners was higher than that from low-ranking females (p < 0.01).On the other hand, the ratio of the number of old or young grooming partners of adult females had similar values. The grooming frequency of adult females gave or received from adult males during mating seasons was higher than non-mating seasons (both p < 0.05) while high-rank females groomed adult males more than low-rank females did.
The socionomic sex ratios of these two social groups were similar during mating seasons (AM:AF = 1:1.8). Both troop and periphery males had significantly higher frequency of social grooming with adult females in mating seasons than in non-mating seasons. The types of males and social groups had significant effects on the allogrooming frequency among adult males in mating seasons (p < 0.05) but not in non-mating seasons (p > 0.1). Moreover, troop males had higher grooming partners than periphery males. Major grooming partners of troop males were adult females regardless of the seasons. Subordinate males were mostly the receivers in the grooming dyads with dominant males in the mating seasons, but the relationships changed during non-mating seasons. Agonistic interactions occurred mainly during mating seasons and its frequency among periphery males was 1.8 times of troop males (p < 0.05).
The preference grooming sites between allo-grooming and auto-grooming of C and Cd groups had varied significantly (p < 0.001). The back region was the preferred grooming site in allo-grooming of C and Cd group and the ano-genital region was the least groomed site. In auto-grooming, monkeys paid much attention to the legs ignoring the back and face. The result indicated that when the adult individuals groomed the head, back and face which showed significant difference in the frequency among AM and AF (p < 0.05). The related female adults groomed head more frequently than unrelated female adults (p < 0.05), but dominance rank and age-class did not apparently affect the corresponding values for the frequency of grooming sites among adult females (both p > 0.1).
The results indicated that social grooming among adult females took place more often during non-mating seasons, and more often in kin-related females than unrelated females. Moreover, the dominant females were likely to groom related females. Therefore social grooming among kin-related females may reinforce relationships while reciprocal grooming of unrelated females may serve to form alliance or ranking promotion in the social group. On the other hand, social grooming between adult male and female macaques more frequent in mating seasons than in non-mating seasons. This showed that adult male Formosan macaques employed complex strategies to achieve reproductive success. Nonetheless, the periphery males had more male grooming partners than troop males did which seemingly to enhance male coalitions.

目錄
誌謝......................................................................................i
摘要.....................................................................................iii
Abstract...............................................................................vi
目錄......................................................................................x
前言……………....................…………………….............1
材料與方法……………………………………….............6
一、研究地點…...…………..…………………….……...6
二、研究對象.....................................................................6
三、觀察記錄…....……………………………….……....8
四、行為定義………...………………………….….……9
五、資料分析………………………………………..…..12
結果….……………………………………..………….…21
一、社群成員變化........................................................21
二、社群成員與理毛行為............................................22
三、成年雌猴之社會理毛............................................23
四、成年雄猴之社會行為............................................34
五、獼猴理毛部位分佈................................................38
討論....................................................................................42
一、社群成員活動性之比較........................................42
二、成年雌猴之社會理毛............................................43
三、成年雄猴的社會行為............................................52
四、獼猴理毛部位之分佈............................................61
五、結論........................................................................63
參考文獻….……………..……………………..…….…..66
表........................................................................................80
圖…...……………………………………….……..........108
附錄..................................................................................135

王敬平（2005），壽山地區台灣獼猴的活動性與食性研究，國立中山大學生物科學系碩士論文。
吳坤霖（2008），圈養台灣獼猴（Macaca cyclopis）衝突後行為研究，國立中山大學生物科學系碩士論文。
林樹宜（2004），壽山地區台灣獼猴的親子行為，國立中山大學生物科學系碩士論文。
高千晴（2004），壽山地區人猴互動及遊客對棲地之衝擊，國立中山大學生物科學系碩士論文。
高雄市政府建設局（1995），高雄市壽山自然生態保育及觀光休憩設施整體規定定案報告書。
高雄市教師會（生態教育中心），柴山植物名錄。
陳慧娟、陳憶民（1989），圈養台灣獼猴（Macaca cyclopis）之理毛行為初步探討，動物園學報，1，頁147-157。
黃志堅（2003），壽山地區台灣獼猴（Macaca cyclopis）之生殖行為，國立中山大學生物科學系碩士論文。
楊錫林（1983），咖啡對臺灣獼猴社會行為之影響，中原學報，12，頁 13-29。
盧堅富（1988），玉山楠梓仙溪林道台灣獼猴之生態研究，國立台灣大學動物研究所碩士論文。
鍾佳紋（2008），壽山地區臺灣獼猴位序關係之變異與穩定性，國立中山大學生物科學系碩士論文。
Agetsuma N, N Nakagawa. 1998. Effects of habitat differences on feeding behaviors of Japanese monkeys - comparison between Yakushima and Kinkazan. Primates 39: 275-289.
Altmann J. 1974. Observational study of behavior: sampling method. Behaviour 49: 227-262.
Altmann SA, J Altmann. 1979. Demographic constraints on behavior and social organization. In IS Bernstein, EO Smith, eds. Primates ecology and human origins. New York: Garland Press, pp. 47-64
Axelrod R, WD Hamilton. 1981. The evolution of cooperation. Science 211: 1390-1396.
Baxter MJ, LM Fedigan. 1979. Grooming and consort partner selection in a troop of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata). Archives of sexual behavior 8: 445-456.
Bernstein et al., 1993
Bernstein IS, MA Cooper.1999. Dominance in Assamese macaques (Macaca-Assamensis). Amer. J. Primatol. 48: 283-289.
Birky WA, HH Su. 2005. Temporal variation in adult affiliation patterns in wild Taiwanese macaques (Macaca cyclopis). Int. J. Primatol. 26: 1251-1266.
Boccia ML, B Rockwood, MA Novak. 1982. The influence of behavioral context and social characteristics on the physical aspects of social grooming in rhesus monkeys. Int. J. Primatol. 3: 91-108.
Boccia ML. 1983. A functional analysis of social grooming patterns through direct comparison with self-grooming in rhesus monkeys. Int. J. Primatol. 4: 399-418.
Boccia ML. 1989. Comparison of the physical characteristics of grooming in two species of macaques (Macaca nemestrina and M. radiata). J. Compara. Psychol. 103: 177-183.
Bruce KE, DQ Estep, SC Baker. 1988. Social interactions following parturition in stumptail macaques. Amer. J. Primatol. 15: 247-261.
Butovskaya M. 1993. Kinship and different dominance styles in groups of 3 species of the genus macaca (M. arctoides, M. mulatta, M Fascicularis.) Folia Primatol. 60: 210-224.
Butovskaya ML, AG Kozintsev. 1996. Gender-related factors affecting primate social-behavior-grooming, rank, age, and kinship in heterosexual and all-male groups of stumptail macaques. Amer. J. Phy. Anthrol. 101: 39-54.
Butovskaya ML, AG Kozintsev, BA Kozintsev. 1994. The structure of affiliative relations in a primate community: Allogrooming in stumptailed macaques (Macaca arctoides). Hum. Evol. 9: 11-23.
Call J, PG Judge, FBM de Waal. 1996. Influence of kinship and spatial density on reconciliation and grooming in rhesus-monkeys. Amer. J. Primatol. 39: 35-45.
Chaffin CL, K Friedlen, FBM de Waal. 1995. Dominance style of Japanese macaques compared with rhesus and stumptail macaques. Amer. J. Primatol. 35: 103-116.
Chapais B, C Gauthier, J Prudhomme. 1995. Dominance competition through affiliation and support in Japanese macaques-an experimental-study. Int. J. Primatol. 16: 521-536.
Cheverud JM, BD Chepko-Sade, MM. Dow, DS. Sade. 1988. Group selection models with population substructure based on social interaction networks. Amer. J. Phy. Anthrol. 77: 427-433.
Cooper MA, IS Bernstein. 2000. Social grooming in Assamese macaques (Macaca assamensis). Amer. J. Primatol. 50: 77-85.
De Waal FBM, LM Luttrell. 1989. Toward a comparative socioecology of the genus Macaca: Different dominance styles in rhesus and stumptail monkeys. Am. J. Primatol. 19: 83-109.
Defler TR. 1978. Allogrooming in two species of macaque (Macaca nemestrina and Macaca radiate). Primates 19: 153-167.
Demaria C, B Thierry. 2001. A comparative study of reconciliation in rhesus and tonkean macaques. Behaviour 138: 397-410.
Drickamer LC. 1976. Quantitative observations of grooming behavior in free-ranging Macaca mulatta. Primates 17: 323-335.
Dunbar RIM. 1979. Population demography, social organization, and mating strategies. In IS Bernstein, EO Smith, eds. Primates ecology and human origins. New York: Garland Press, pp. 67-88.
Dunbar RIM. 1991 Functional significance of social grooming in primates. Folia Primatol. 57: 121-131.
Ehardt CL, IS. Bernstein 1987. Patterns of affiliation among immature rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Amer. J. Primatol. 13: 255-269.
Estrada A, R Estrada, F Ervin. 1977. Establishment of a free-ranging colony of stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides): Social relations I. Primates 18: 647-676.
Fa JE, DG Lindburg. 1996. Evolution and ecology of the macaque societies. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Franz C. 1999. Allogrooming behavior and grooming site preferences in captive bonobos (Pan paniscus): association with female dominance. Int. J. Primatol. 20: 525-546.
Furuichi T. 1985.Inter-male associations in a wild Japanese macaque troop on Yakushima Island. Primates 26: 219-237.
Gillian RB, FD Alan. 2000. The development of behaviour sex differences in infant rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Primates 41: 63-77.
Glide BB, GG Eaton, DF Johnson, J Worlein. 1986. Social behavior of infant and mother Japanese macaques ( Macaca fuscata ): Effects of kinship, partner sex, and infant sex. Int. J. Primatol. 7: 139-155.
Gumert MD. 2007. Payment for sex in a macaque mating market. Anim. Behav. 74: 1655-1667.
Gust DA, TP Gordon, ME Wilson, AR Brodie, A Ahmedansari. 1996. Group formation of female pigtail macaques (Macaca nemestrina). Amer. J. Primatol. 39: 263-273.
Hemelruk CK, M Luteijn. 1998. Philopatry, male presence and grooming reciprocation among female primates - a comparative perspective. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 42: 207-215.
Henzi SP, L Barrett. 1999. The value of grooming to female primates. Primates 40: 47-59.
Hill DA. 1987. Social relationships between adult male and female rhesus macaques: 1. Sexual consortships. Primates 28: 439-456.
Hill DA. 1990. Social relationships between adult male and female rhesus macaques: II. non-sexual affiliative behaviour. Primates 31: 33-50.
Hill DA. 1994. Affiliative behavior between adult males of the Genus macaca. Behaviour 130: 293-308.
Hinde RA, S Atkinson. 1970. Assessing the roles of social partners in maintaining mutual proximity, as exemplified by mother-infant relations in rhesus monkeys. Anim. Behav. 18: 169-176.
Horiuchi S. 2005. Affiliative relations among male Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata yakui) within and outside a troop on Yakushima Island. Primates 46: 191-197.
Horiuchi S. 2007. Social relationships of male Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) in different habitats: a comparison between Yakushima island and Shimokita peninsula populations. Anthropol Sci. 115: 63-65.
Hsu MJ, J Moore, JF Lin, G Agoramoorthy. 2000. High-incidence of supernumerary nipples and twins in Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) at Mt. Longevity, Taiwan. Am. J. Primatol. 52: 199-205.
Hsu MJ, G Agoramoorthy, JF Lin. 2001. Birth seasonality and interbirth intervals in free-ranging Formosan macaques, Macaca cyclopis, at Mt. Longevity, Taiwan. Primates 42: 15-25.
Hsu MJ, JF Lin. 2001. Troop size and structure in free-ranging Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) at Mt. Longevity, Taiwan. Zool. Stud. 40: 49-60.
Hsu MJ, JF Lin, LM Chen, G Agoramoorthy. 2002. Copulation calls in male Formosan macaques: Honest signals of male quality? Folia Primatol. 73: 220-223.
Hsu MJ, LM Chen, G Agoramoorthy. 2005. The vocal repertoire of Formosan macaques, Macaca cyclopis: Acoustic structure and behavioral context. Zool. Stud. 44: 275-294.
Hsu MJ, JF Lin, G Agoramoorthy. 2006. Effects of group size on infant mortality, birth rate and social interaction among Formosan macaques at Mt Longevity, Taiwan. Ethol. Ecol. Evol. 18: 3-17.
Hsu MJ, CC Kao, G Agoramoorthy. 2008. Interactions between visitors and Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) at Shou-Shan Nature Park, Taiwan. Amer. J. Primatol. 70:1-9.
Inoue E, O Takenaka. 2008. The effect of male tenure and female mate choice on paternity in free-ranging Japanese macaques. Amer. J. Primatol. 70: 62-68.
Irwin SB, PG Judge, TE Ruehlmann. 1993. Kinship, association, and social relationships in rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Amer. J. Primatol. 31: 41-53.
Jack KM, MSM Pavelka. 1997. The behavior of peripheral males during the mating season in Macaca fuscata. Primates 38: 369-377.
Janus M. 1992. Interplay between various aspects in social relationships of young rhesus monkeys: Dominance, agonistic help, and affiliation. Int. J. Primatol. 26: 291-308.
Jensen GD, FL Blanton. 1981. Sexual behavior in older monkeys, Macaca radiate. Int. J. Primatol. 2: 187-193.
Judge PG, FBM de Waal. 1994. Intergroup grooming relations between alpha-females in a population of free-ranging rhesus macaques. Folia Primatol. 63: 63-70.
Kapsalis E, CM Berman. 1996. Models of affiliative relationships among free-ranging rhesus-monkeys (Macaca mulatta). 2. testing predictions for 3 hypothesized organizing principles. Behaviour 133: 1235-1263.
Katharine MJ, MSM Pavelka. 1997. The behavior of peripheral males during the mating season in Macaca fuscata. Primates 38: 369-377.
Kato E. 1999. Effects of age, dominance, and seasonal changes on proximity relationships in female Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) in a free-ranging group at Katsuyama. Primates 40: 291-300.
Koyama N. 1991. Grooming relationships in the Arashiyama group of Japanese monkeys. In: Fedigan LM, Asquith PJ (eds) The monkeys of Arashiyama: thirty-five years of research in Japan and the West. State University of New York Press, Albany, N.J. 211–226.
Kutsukake N. 2000. Matrilineal rank inheritance varies with absolute rank in Japanese macaques. Primates 41: 321-335.
Lee CD. 1976. Quantitative observations of grooming behavior in free-ranging Macaca mulatta. Primates 17: 323-335.
Lee LL, YS Lin.1995. Status of Formosan macaques in Taiwan. Primate Conser. 11: 18-20.
Lehner PN. 1996. Handbook of ethological methods, 2nd. Cambridge University Press, London, pp 672.
Li J, H Yin, L Zhou. 2007. Non-reproductive copulation behavior among Tibetan macaques (Macaca thibetana) at Huangshan, China. Primates 48: 64-72.
Lin TJ, G Agoramoorthy, CC Huang, MJ Hsu. 2008. Effects of troop size on social relations among males Formosan Macaques, Macaca cyclopis. Zool. Stud. 47: 237-246.
Ljungberg T, K Westlund, AJL Forsberg. 1999. Conflict-resolution in 5-year-old boys-does postconflict affiliative behavior have a reconciliatory role. Anim. Behav. 58: 1007-1016.
Machairas I, CA Camperio, S Sgardelis. 2003. Interpopulation differences in activity patterns of Macaca sylvanus in the Moroccan Middle Atlas. Hum. Evol. 18: 185-202.
Maestripieri D. 2000. Determinants of affiliative interactions between adult males and lactating females in pigtail macaques (Macaca nemestrina). Ethology 106: 425-439.
Majolo B, R Ventura, NF Koyama. 2005. Postconflict behavior among male Japanese macaques. Int. J. Primatol. 26: 321-336.
Majolo B, R Ventura, NF Koyama, G Schino. 2006. Grooming, coalition and co-feeding in wild Japanese macaque females. Int. J. Primatol. 27: 554-568.
Manson JH, CD Navarrete, JB Silk, S Perry. 2003. Time-matched grooming in female primates? New analyses from two species. Anim. Behav. 67: 493-500.
Maria L, A Boccia. 1989. Comparison of the physical characteristics of grooming in two species of macaques (Macaca nemestrina and M. radiata). J. Comp. Psychol. 103: 177-183.
Martenson Jr. J, M Oswald, D Sackett, J Erwin. 1977. Diurnal variation of common behaviors of pigtail monkeys (Macaca nemestrina). Primates 18: 875-882.
Matheson MD, IS Bemstein. 2000. Grooming, social bonding, and agonistic aiding in rhesus-monkeys. Amer. J. Primatol. 51: 177-186.
Matsubara M, DS Sprague. 2004. Mating tactics in response to costs incurred by mating with multiple males in wild female Japanese macaques. Int. J. Primatol. 25: 901-917.
Matsumura S. 1996. Postconflict affiliative contacts between former opponents among wild moor macaques (Macaca maurus). Amer. J. Primatol. 38: 211-219.
Matsumura S. 1997. Mothers in a wild group of moor macaques (Macaca maurus) are more attractive to other group members when holding their infants. Folia Primatol. 68: 77-85.
Mehlman PT, B Chapais. 1988. Differential effects of kinship, dominance, and the mating season on female allogrooming in a captive group of Macaca fuscata. Primates 29: 195-217.
Mehlman PT, JD Higley, BJ Fernald, FR Sallee, SJ Suomi, M Linnoila. 1997. CSF 5-HIAA , testosterone, and sociosexual behaviors in free-ranging male rhesus macaques in the mating season. Psychi. Res. 72: 89-102.
Mori A, K Watanabe. 2003. Life history of male Japanese macaques living on Koshima Islet. Primates 44: 119-126.
Moser R, M Cords, H Kummer. 1991. Social influences on grooming site preferences among captive long-tailed macaques. Int. J. Primatol. 12: 217-230.
Muroyama Y. 1991. Mutual reciprocity of grooming in female Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Behaviour 119: 161-170.
Muroyama Y. 1995. Developmental changes in mother-offspring grooming in Japanese macaques. Amer. J. Primatol. 37: 57-64
Muroyama Y. 1996. Decision-making in grooming by Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Int. J. Primatol. 17: 817-830.
Nakagawa N. 1998. Ecological determinants of the behavior and social-structure of Japanese monkeys-a synthesis. Primates 39: 375-383.
Nakamichi M. 2003. Age-related differences in social grooming among adult female Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata). Primates 44: 239-246.
Nakamichi M, N Itoigawa, S Imakawa, S Machida. 1995. Dominance relations among adult females in a free-ranging group of Japanese monkeys at Katsuyama. Int. J. Primatol. 37: 241-251.
Nakamichi M, Y Shizawa. 2003. Distribution of grooming among adult females in a large, free-ranging group of Japanese macaques. Int. J. Primatol. 24: 607-625.
Nakamichi M, K Yamada. 2007. Long-term grooming partnerships between unrelated adult females in a free-ranging group of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata). Amer. J. Primatol. 69: 652-663.
Oi T. 1990. Patterns of dominance and affiliation in wild pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) in West Sumatra. Int. J. Primatol. 11: 339-356.
O''Keeffe RT, K Lifshitz, G Linn. 1983. Relationships among dominance, inter-animal spatial proximity and affiliative social behavior in stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides). Appl. Anim. Ethol. 9: 331-339.
Oki J, Y Maeda. 1973. Grooming as a regulator of behavior in Japanese macaques. In: Carpenter CR (ed) Behavioral regulators of behavior in primates. Bucknell University Press, Lewisburg, Pa. 149–163.
Petit O, B Thierry. 1994. Aggressive and peaceful interventions in conflicts in Tonkean macaques. Anim. Behav. 48: 1427-1436.
Pryor W, CP Chang, C Raulston. 1969. Urolithiasis in a Taiwan monkey (M. cyclopis): A literature review & case report. Lab. Anim. Care 19: 862-865.
Ratnayeke S. 1994. The behavior of postreproductive females in a wild population of toque macaques (Macaca sinica) in Sri-Lanka. Int. J. Primatol. 15: 445-469.
Reed C, TG O’Brien, MF Kinnaird. 1997. Male Social Behavior and Dominance Hierarchy in the Sulawesi Crested Black Macaque (Macaca nigra). Int. J. Primatol. 18: 247-260.
Rhine RJ. 1973. Variation and consistency in the social behavior of two groups of stumptail macaques (Macaca arctoides). Primates 14: 21-35.
Schino G, R Ventura, A Troisi. 2003. Grooming among female Japanese macaques: distinguishing between reciprocation and interchange. Behav. Ecol. 14: 887-891.
Silk JB. 1982. Altruism among female Macaca radiate: Explanations and analysis of partterns of grooming and coalition. Behaviour 79: 162-188.
Simonds PE. 1974. Sex differences in bonnet macaque networks and social structure. Archi. Sex. Behav. 3: 151-166.
Singh M, BA Krishna, M Singh. 2006. Dominance hierarchy and social grooming in female lion- tailed macaques (Macaca silenus) in the Western Ghats, India. J. Biosci. 31: 369-377.
Sinha A. 1998. Knowledge acquired and decisions made-triadic interactions during allogrooming in wild bonnet macaques, Macaca radiata. Philoso. Trans. Roy. Soci. Lond. Ser. B-Biolo. Sci. 353: 619-631.
Soltis J. 1999. Measuring male-female relationships during the mating season in wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata Yakui). Primates 40: 453-467.
Sprague DS, S Suzuki, T Tsukahara. 1996. Variation in social mechanisms by which males attained the alpha rank among Japanese macaques. In JE Fa, DG Lindburg, eds. Evolution and ecology of macaque societies. New York: Cambridge Univ Press. pp 444-458.
Sugiura H, N Agetsuma, S Suzuki. 2002. Troop Extinction and Female Fusion in Wild Japanese Macaques in Yakushima. Int. J. Primatol. 23: 69-84.
Sussman RW, I Tattersall. 1981. Behavior and ecology of macaca fascicularis in Mauritius: A preliminary study. Primates 22: 192-205.
Suzuki S, DA Hill, DS Sprague. 1998. Intertroop transfer and dominance rank structure of nonnatal male Japanese macaques in Yakushima, Japan. Int. J. Primatol. 19: 703-722.
Takahashi H. 2001. Influence of fluctuation in the operational sex ratio to mating of troop and non-troop male Japanese macaques for four years on Kinkazan Island, Japan. Primates 42: 183-191.
Takahashi H, T Furuichi. 1998. Comparative-study of grooming relationships among wild Japanese macaques in Kinkazan-A troop and Yakushima-M troop. Primates 39: 365-374.
Tanaka I. 1995. Matrilineal distribution of louse egg-handling techniques during grooming in free-ranging Japanese macaques. Amer. J. Phy. Anthrol. 98: 197-201.
Tanaka I. 1998. Social Diffusion of Modified Louse Egg-Handling Techniques During Grooming in Free-Ranging Japanese Macaques. Anim. Behav. 56: 1229-1236.
Thierry B, C Gauthier, P Peignot. 1990. Social Grooming in Tonkean Macaques (Macaca-Tonkeana). Int. J. Primatol. 11: 357-375.
Thomsen R, J Soltis. 2000. Socioecological context of parturition in wild Japanese macaques (Macaca-Fuscata) on Yakushima island. Int. J. Primatol. 21: 685-696.
Tsukahara T. 1990. Initiation and solicitation in male-female grooming in a wild Japanese macaque troop on yakushima island. Primates 31: 147-156.
van Noordwijk MA, CP van Schaik. 2001. Career moves: transfer and rank challenge decisions by male long-tailed macaques. Behaviour 138: 359-395.
Venaural R, B Majolo, NF. Koyama, S Hardie, G Schino. 2006. Reciprocation and interchange in wild Japanese macaques: grooming, cofeeding, and agonistic support. Amer. J. Primatol. 68: 1138–1149.
Wheatley BP. 1982. Adult male replacement in Macaca fascicularis of East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Int. J. Primatol. 3: 203-219.
Widdig A, WJ Streich, G Tembrock. 2000. Coalition formation among male Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvamus). Amer. J. Primatol. 50: 37-51.
Worlein JM. 1986. Development of partner preferences in Japanese macaques( Macaca fuscata ): Effects of gender and kinship during the second year of life. Int. J. Primatol. 7: 467-479.
Wu HY, YS Lin. 1993. Life history variables of wild troops of Formosan macaques (Macaca cyclopis) in Kenting, Taiwan. Primates 33: 85-97.
Yamagiwa J, DA Hill. 1998. Intraspecific variation in the social organization of Japanese macaques: past and present scope of field studies in natural habitats. Primates 39: 257–273.
Zamma K. 2002. Grooming site preferences determined by lice infection among Japanese Macaques in Arashiyama. Primates 43: 41-49.
Zhao Q, Z Deng. 1988. Macaca thibetana at Mt. Emei. China: ΙΙ. Birth seasonality. Amer. J. Primatol. 16: 261-268.