臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

汞原本就存在環境中，可藉由食物鏈傳遞至人體，對中樞神經造成傷害。本研究為台灣首次分析民眾飲食中各類食物的汞濃度，主要目的在分析台灣民眾總飲食中汞攝入量的狀況與健康風險，並以髮汞評估人體內在汞負荷狀況。
研究中汞的測定是採用熱解式金汞齊汞分析法，食物樣本是在2004-2006年分批於台灣的拍賣市場採集，包含魚類、非魚類海鮮、肉類、豆製品、蛋類、乳製品、蔬菜、水果與穀類共九大類，共採集118項 574個樣品。研究以半定量飲食頻率問卷蒐集民眾的飲食資料，共訪視素食飲食者、都會區居民、漁村居民、離島居民與漁業工作者五個族群 446位民眾，同時取得飲食問卷與頭髮樣本採集的民眾有 355位。九大類食物的總汞平均濃度在 0.5-82.9 ng/g wet weight間，存在顯著的類別間差異 (p < 0.05)，汞濃度由高到低依序為魚類>非魚類海鮮>蛋>肉、豆製品、蔬菜、穀類、乳製品與水果。食物平均汞濃度均在台灣衛生署、世界衛生組織 (WHO) 與歐 (European Commission)的限值內。
飲食性總汞攝入量在素食者、都會區居民、漁村居民、離島居民與漁業工作者分別為 0.16、0.89、1.22、1.66和 3.50 μg/kg/week，總汞攝入量在族群間有顯著差異 (p < 0.05)，以漁業工作者的總汞攝入量最高，但五個族群的平均汞攝入量均在世界衛生組織的每日容許攝取量 (provisional tolerable weekly intake, PTWI)範圍內 (3-76%)，而魚類在九大類食物是台灣民眾飲食性總汞攝入的最大來源 (42-77%)。
髮汞平均濃度在素食者、都會區居民、漁村居民、離島居民與漁業工作者分別為 0.5±0.5、2.4±1.8、4.4±3.3、4.6±7.4和 9.1±13.6 mg/kg，髮汞濃度在五個族群間存在顯著差異 (p < 0.05)，以漁業工作者的髮汞濃度最高，有2.3%的民眾髮汞濃度高於中毒濃度 20 mg/kg，且均為漁業工作者與離島居民。九大類食物飲食型態，魚類攝取頻率對都會區居民、漁村居民與漁業工作者的髮汞濃度具有顯著的相關性，而民眾的年齡與所食用魚種也是影響民眾髮汞濃度高低的重要因子。
綜合考量汞攝入健康風險與飲食均衡概念，建議民眾攝取魚類以汞濃度在 50 ng/g的中小型魚類為主，對於攝取魚類時僅以大型掠食性魚類為來源的民眾，建議每週攝取量維持在150 g以下。

Mercury is a naturally existing element. It could be transported into human body through food chain, and harm the central nervous system. This is the first study to analyze the concentrations of mercury in different kinds of food in Taiwan. The purpose of the study was to assess the mercury intake of total diet and the health risk. Moreover, the concentration of hair mercury was used to evaluate the body burden.
The mercury concentrations in foods were determined by furnace-gold amalgation mercury analyzer. Nine kinds of foods, fish, nonfish seafood, meats, soybean products, eggs, dairy products, vegetables, fruits and cereals were included in the sample. A total of 118 food composites with 574 samples were collected from three largest cities in Taiwan during 2004 to 2006. Dietary information of 446 Taiwanese was collected by using semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire. Meanwhile, both diet information and hair sample of 355 Taiwanese that were collected.
The mean mercury concentrations of nine kinds of food were significantly different (p < 0.05), ranging from 0.5 to 82.9 ng/g wet wt. The mean mercury concentrations was highest in fish, and sequentially decreased in nonfish seafood, eggs, meats, soybean products, vegetables, cereals, dairy products and fruit. All the mean mercury concentrations of foods were below the standard limits of Department of Health in Taiwan, FAO/WHO and European Commission.
The dietary mercury intakes for vegetarian, general population lived in the city, fishing village, outlying islands and fishing workers were 0.16, 0.89, 1.22, 1.66 and 3.50 μg/kg/week, respectively. There were significant differences (p < 0.05) among the five groups mentioned above. The highest mercury intake was found in the fishing workers. However, the mean mercury intakes for those five groups were still within the PTWI safe limit suggested by FAO/WHO, corresponding to 3 to 76% of PTWI. Fishes were the major source of mercury intake among nine kinds of foods for Taiwan population, corresponding to 42 to 77% of mean mercury intake.
Mean concentrations of hair mercury of vegetarian, general population lived in the city, fishing village, outlying islands and fishing workers were 0.5±0.5、2.4±1.8、4.4±3.3、4.6±7.4 and 9.1±13.6 mg/kg respectively. Significant differences were found among the five groups (p < 0.05). The highest mercury concentration of hair was also found in the fishing workers corresponding to the result of diet intake. 2.3% of Taiwan population with hair mercury higher than the toxic level, 20 mg/kg, proposed by FAO/WHO. They were all fishing workers and outlying islanders. Multiple regression analysis revealed that the concentrations of hair mercury were significantly correlated with the frequency of fish consumption for the population lived in the city, fishing village, and fishing workers. The mercury concentrations of hair was also related with the age of people and the fish species.
Aspects of nutrient balance and the health risk, consumption of small and medium-sized fish with mercury lower than 50 ng/g was recommended. No more than 150 g per week was acceptable for the people like to eat large-sized predatory fishes.

目 錄
致謝
中文摘要………………………………………………..............……..I
英文摘要……………………………………….…………………..….III
目錄…………………………………………………………...…….….VI
表目錄………………………………………………………………….IX
圖目錄……………………………………………………………….....XI
第一章 緒論
一、環境中的汞循環….……………………………………………..…1
二、汞的毒性………….…………………………………………..……1
三、人體汞暴露來源…………………………………………………...2
四、飲食性汞攝入研究…………………………………………….…..3
五、台灣民眾飲食特性………………………………………………...4
六、研究構想…………………………………………………………...5
七、研究目的..………………………………………………………….6
第二章 台灣民眾飲食性汞攝入量之評估
一、前言..………………………………………………………….……10
二、材料與方法
2.1樣本採集……………………………………………………...……..11
2.2汞濃度分析…………………………………………………...……..12
2.3品管與品保……………………………………………...…………..12
2.4飲食性汞攝入量估算………………………………………...……..13
2.5統計分析………………………………………………...…………..14
三、結果與討論
3.1九大類食物的汞含量……………………………………...………..14
3.2飲食性汞攝入量……………………………………...…………..…19
四、結論……………………………………………..…………………..22
第三章 台灣民眾飲食型態與汞攝入風險評估
一、前言
1.1飲食性汞攝入的來源……………………………………………….31
1.2飲食性汞攝入的評估方法…….……………………………………32
1.3汞攝入量風險評估………………………………………………….33
二、材料與方法
2.1研究對象…………………………………………………………….34
2.2飲食型態調查……………………………………………………….35
2.3食物攝取量的檢核………………………………………….………36
2.4食物汞濃度分析…………………………………………………….36
2.5汞攝入量評估……………………………………………………….36
2.6汞攝入風險評估…………………………………………………….37
2.7統計分析…………………………………………………………….38
三、結果與討論
3.1基本資料…………………………………………………………….38
3.2台灣民眾飲食型態………………………………………………….39
3.3台灣民眾飲食性汞攝入…………………………………………….42
3.4台灣民眾飲食性汞暴露風險評估…………………………...……..45
3.5魚類攝取與汞攝入量….………...…………………………...……..47
四、結論………………………………………………………………...49
第四章 台灣民眾頭髮汞濃度與飲食型態之相關性
一、前言
1.1汞在人體的分佈………………………………………………….....66
1.2人體內在汞劑量偵測方法……………………………………….....66
1.3人體內在汞劑量評估……………………………………….............68
二、材料與方法
2.1樣本收集……………………………………….................................68
2.2髮汞分析方法之建立…………………………………….................69
2.3髮汞分析方法……………………………………….........................71
2.4髮汞分析技術之品管與品保………………………………….........71
2.5飲食型態……………………………………….................................72
2.6統計分析……………………………………….................................72
三、結果與討論
3.1髮汞分析方法之建立……………………………………….............72
3.2髮汞分析………………………………………………….................73
3.3髮汞與飲食型態的相關分析…………………………………….....75
3.4風險評估…………………………………………….........................78
四、結論……………………………………….......................................78
第五章 總論………………………………………..............................96
參考文獻………………………………………………………………...99
附錄一 飲食問卷…………………..……………………………..….....108
附錄二 個人著作…………………………………………………….…112

Al-Majed, N. B., Preston, M. R., 2000. Factors influencing the total mercury and methyl mercury in the hair of the fishermen of Kuwait. Environmental Pollution 109, 239-250.
Almela, C., Algora, S., Benito, V., Clemente, M. J., Devesa, V., Suner, M. J., Velez, D., Momtoro R., 2002. Heavy metal, total arsenic, and inorganic arsenic contents of algae food products. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 50, 918-923.
Ariey, D., 1983. National fish consumption and the accumulation of mercury in human hair. Journal of Environmental Science and Health 31, 157-180.
ATSDR., 1999. Toxicological profile for mercury. Retrieved October 1, 2007, from http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp46.html.
Bahemuka, T. E., Mubohu, E. B., 1999. Heavy metals in edible green vegetables grown along the sites of the Sinza and Msimbazi rivers in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Food Chemistry 66, 63-66.
Bencko, V., 1995. Use of human hair as a biomarker in the assessment of exposure pollutanys in occupational and environmental settings. Toxicology 101, 29-39.
Bordajandi, L. R., Gomez, G., Abad, E., Rivera, J., del Mar Fernandez-Baston, M., 2004. Survey of persistent organochlorine contaminants (PCBs, PCDD/Fs, and PAHs), heavy metals (Cu, Cd, Zn, Pb, and Hg), and arsenic in food samples from Huelva (Spain): Levels and health implications. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 52, 992-1001.
Boszke, L., Glosinska G., and Siepak, J., 2002. Some aspects of speciation of mercury in a water. Environment. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies 11, 4, 285-298.
Buchet, J. P., Lauwerys, R., Vandevoorde, A., Pycke, J. M., 1983. Oral daily intake of cadmium, lead, manganese, chromium, mercury, calcium, zinc, and arsenic in Belgium: A duplicate meal study. Food and Chemical Toxicology 21, 19-24.
Bu-Olayan, A. H., Al-Yakoob, S., 1998. Lead, nickel and vanadium in seafood: An exposure assessment for Kuwaiti consumers. The Science of the Total Environment 223, 81-86.
Burger, J., 2000. Gender differences in meal patterns: role of self-caught fish and eild game in meat and fish diets. Environmental Research Section A 83, 140-149.
Cappon, C. J., 1987. Uptake and speciation of mercury and selenium in vegetable crops grown on compost-treated soil. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 34, 4, 353-361.
Chen, C. Y., Chen, M. H., 2003. Investigation of Zn, Cu, Cd and Hg concentrations in the oyster of Chi-Ku, Tai-Shi and Tapeng Bay, southwestern Taiwan. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis 11, 32-38.
Chen, Y. C., Chen, M. H., 2006. Mercury levels of seafood commonly consumed in Taiwan. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis 14, 4, 373-378.
Chien, L. C., Yeh, C. Y., Jiang, C. B. , Hsu, C. S. Han, B. C., 2007. Estimation of acceptable mercury intake from fish in Taiwan. Chemosphere 67, 1, 29-35
Clarkson, T. W., 1992. Mercury: major issues in environmental health. Environmental Health Perspectives 100, 31-38.
Clarkson, T. W., 2002. The three modern faces of mercury. Environmental Health Perspectives. 110, 11-23.
Clarkson, T. W., Magos, L., Myers, G. J., 2003. The toxicology of mercury－current exposures and clinical manifestations. The New England Journal of Medicine 349, 1731-1737.
Clewell, H. J., Crump, K. S., Gentry, P. R., Shipp, A. M., 2000. Site-specific reference dose for methylmercury for fish The toxicology of mercury current exposures and clinical manifestations-eating populations. Fuel Processing Technology 65-66, 43-54.
COA., 2004. 2003 Food supply and utilization annual report. Retrieved 2004, from http://www.coa.gov.tw/view.php?catid=1241
Copper, C., Barker, D. J., Wickham, C., 1988. Physical activity, muscle strength and calcium intake in fracture of the proximal femur in Britain. British Medical Journal 297, 1443-1446.
Cuadrado, C., Kimpulaaainen, J., Moreiras, O., 1995. Lead, cadmium and mercury contents in average Spanish market basket from Galicia, Valencia, Andalucia and Madrid. Food Additives and Contaminants 12, 107-118.
Dabeka, R. W., McKenzie, A. D., Bradley, P., 2003. Survey of total mercury in total diet food composites and an estimation of the dietary intake of mercury by adults and children from two Canadian cities, 1998–2000. Food Additives and Contaminants 20, 629–638.
Decloitre, F., 1998. La pert des differents aliments dans l’expostion au plomb, au cadmium et au mercure, en France. Cahiers de nutrition et de Dietetique, 3, 167-175.
Denise, P., Isabelle, C., Pierre, D., Liliane, A. F., Alain, L. B., 1999. Evaluation of the contamination of marine alage (seaweed) from the St. Lawrence river and likely to be consumed by humans. Environmental Research Section A 80, 175-182.
Dickman, M. D., Leung, K. M. C., 1998. Mercury and organochlorine exposure from fish consumption in Hong Kong. Chemosphere. 37, 991-1015.
Dickman, M. D., Leung, K. M. C., Leohg, M. K. H., 1998. Hong Kong male subfertility links to mercury in human hair and fish. The Science of the Total Environment 214, 165-174.
EC., 2001 Commission regulation (EC) No 466/2001: Setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs. Official Journal of the European Communities.
Foo, S. C., Tan, Y. C., 1998. Elements in the hair of south-east Asian islanders. The Science of the Total Environment 209, 185-192.
Forsyth, D. S., Casey, V., Dabeka, R. W., Mckenzie, A., 2004. Methylmercury levels in predatory fish species marketed in Canada. Food Additives and Contaminants 21, 849-856.
Gast, C. H., Jansen, E., Bierling, J., Haanstra, L., 1988. Heavy metals in mushrooms and their relationship with soil characteristics. Chemosphere 17, 789-799.
Han, B. C., Jeng, W. L., Chen, R. Y., Fang, G.. T., Hung, T. C., Tseng, R. J., 1998. Estimation of target hazard quotients and potential health risks for metals by consumption of seafood in Taiwan. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 35, 711-720.
Harada, M., 1995. Minamata disease: methylmercury poisoning in Japan caused by environmental pollution, Critical Reviews in Toxicology 25, 1-24.
Harada, M., Nakanishi, J., Konuma, S., Ohno, K., Kimura, T., Yamaguchi, H., Tsuruta, K., Kizaki, T., Ookawara, T., Ohno, H., 1998. The present mercury contents of scalp hair and clinical symptoms in inhabitants of the Minamata Area. Environmental Research Section A77, 160-164.
Hardy, B., 1998. The 1996 Australian market basket survey. Canberra: Australia New Zealand Food Authority.
Heady, J. A., 1961. Diets of bank clerks-Development of a method of classifying the diets of individuals for use in epidemiological studies. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 124, 336-361.
Holsbeek, L., Das, H. K., Joris, C. R., 1996. Mercury in human hair and relation to fish consumption in Bangladesh, The Science of the Total Environment 186, 181-188.
Huang, C. Y., Shia, B. C., Kao, H. M., 1993. Study on women''s consumption behavior of fish in Taiwan area. China Fisheries Monthly 491, 33-51.
Ikarashi, M., Sasaki, K., Toyoda, M., Saito, Y., 1996. Annual daily intakes of Hg, PCB, and arsenic from fish and shellfish and comparative survey of their residue levels in fish by body weight. Eisei Shikenjo Hokoku 114, 43-47.
Iwasaki, Y., Sakamoto, M., Nakai, K., Oka, T., Dakeishi, M., Iwata, T., Satoh, H., Murata, K., 2003. Estimation of daily mercury intake from seafood in Japanese women: Akita cross-sectional study. The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine 200, 67-73.
JECFA., 2003. Sixty-first meeting of the Joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food additives. Rome, June 2003. Retrieved 2003, from http://www.chem.unep.ch/mercury/Report/JECFA-PTWI.htm
Jedrzejczak, R., 2002. Determination of total mercury in foods of plants orgin in Poland by cold vapor atomic absorption spectrometry. Food Additives and Contaminants 19, 996-1002.
Jorhem, L., Becker, W., Slorach, S., 1998. Intake of 17 elements by Swedish women, determined by a 24-h duplicate portion study. Journal of Food Composition Analysis 11, 32-46.
Knowles, T. G., Farrington, D., Kestin, S. C., 2003. Mercury in UK imported fish and shellfish and UK-farmed fish and their products. Food Additives and Contaminants 20, 813-818.
Kosatsky, T., Przybysz, R., Armstrong, B., 2000. Mercury exposure in Montrealers who eat St. Lawrence River sportfish, Environmental Research 84, 36-43.
Kumpulainen, J., Tahvonen, R., 1989. Report on the activities of the sub-network on trace elements status in food. FAO Report of the 1989 Consultation of the European Cooperative Research Network on trace elements, Lausanne.
Lawrence, H. K., Warren, C., John, D. J., Robert, A. L., John, K. T., George, W., 1983. Principles of environmental analysis. Analytical Chemistry 55, 2210-2218.
Lee, H. S., Cho, Y. H., Park, S. O., Kye, S. H., Kim, B. H., Hahm, T. S., Kim, M., Lee, J. O., Kim, C., 2006. Dietary exposure of the Korean population to arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis 19, S31-S37.
Lepsova, A., Mejstrik, V., 1988. Accumulation of trace elements in fruiting bodies of macrofungi in the Krusne Hory Mountains, Czecholovakia. The Science of the Total Environment 76, 117-128.
Lin, H. T., Wong, S. S., Li, G. C., 2004. Heavy metal content of rice and shellfish in Taiwan. Journal of Food and Drug Analysis 12, 167-174.
Llobet, J. M., Falco, G.., Casas, C., Teixido, A., Domingo, J. L., 2003. Concentrations of arsenic, cadmium, mercury, and lead in common foods and estimates daily intake by children, adolescents, adults and senior of Catanolia, Spain. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51, 838-842.
MacIntosh, D. L., Spengler, J. D., Ozkaynak, H., Tsai, L., Ryan, B., 1996. Dietary exposures to selected metals and pesticides. Environmental Health Perspectives 104, 202-209.
MAFF., 1999. 1997 Total Diet Study - Aluminium, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, tin and zinc. Food Surveillance Information Sheet No. 191 November.
Meranger, J. C., Smith, D. C., 1972. The heavy metal content of a typical Canadian diet. Canadian Journal of Public Health 63, 53-57.
Morel, F. M. M., Kraepiel, A. M. L., Amyot, M., 1998. The chemical cycle and bioaccumulation of mercury. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 29, 43-566.
Nabrzyski, M., Gajewska, R., 1984. Determination of mercury, cadmium, and lead in food. Roczniki Panstowowego Zakladu Higieny 35, 1-11.
Nakagawa, R., 1995. Concentration of mercury in hair of Japanese people. Chemosphere 30, 127-133.
Nakagawa, R., Yumita, Y., Hiromoto, M., 1997. Total mercury intake from fish and shellfish by Japanese people. Chemosphere 35, 2909-2913.
NAS., 2000. National academy of science committee on the toxicological effects of mercury, national mesearch nouncil. Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury. National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
Olivero, J., Johnson, B., Arguello, E., 2002. Human exposure to mercury in San Jorge river basin, Colombia (South America), The Science of the Total Environment 289, 41-47.
Renzoni, A., Zino, F., Franchi, E., 1998. Mercury levels along the food chain and risk for exposed populations. Environmental Research 77, 68-72.
Salonen, J. T., Seppanen, K., Nyyssonen, H., Korpela, H., Kauhanen, J., Kantola, M., Tuomilehto, J., Esterbauer, H., Tatzber, F., Salonen, R., 1995. Intake of mercury from fish, lipid peroxidation and the risk of myocardial infraction and coronary cardiovascular and any death in eastern Finnishmen. Circulation 91, 645-655.
Shahar, D. R., Shai, I., Vardi, H., Brener-Azrad, A., Fraser, D., 2003a. Development of a semi quantitative food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) to assess dietary intake of multiethnic populations. European Journal of Epidemiology 18, 855-861.
Shahar, D. R., Shai, I., Vardi, H., Fraser, D., 2003b. Development of food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) for the elderly population based on a population survey. Journal of Nutriiton 133, 3625-3629.
Stern, A. H., Gochfeld, M., Weisel, C., Burger, J., 2001. Mercury and methylmercury exposure in the New Jersey pregnant population. Archives of Environmental Health 56, 4-10.
Storelli, M. M., Giacominelli-Stuffler, R., Storelli, A., D''Addabbo, R., Palermo, C., Marcotrigiano, G.. O., 2003. Survey of total mercury and methylmercury levels in edible fish from the Adriatic Sea. Food Additives and Contaminants 20, 1114-1119.
Tanaka, T., Aoki, Y., Tamase, K., Umoto, F., Ohbayashi, H., Imou, M., Sasaki, M., 1992. Improved method for determination of total mercury and its application to vegetables and fruits in markets. Journal of food Hygienic Society of Japan 33, 359-364.
Tennant, D. R. (Ed.)., 1997. Food chemical risk analysis. London: Blackie academic and professional, chapman and hall.
Tsuda, T., Inoue T., Kojima, M., Aoki S., 1995. Market basket and duplicate portion estimation of dietary intakes of cadmium, mercury, arsenic, copper, manganese, and zinc by Japanese adults. Journal of AOAC International 78, 6, 1363-1368.
TWDOH., 2008. Food Sanitary Standards. Retrieved 2008, from http://food.doh.gov.tw/foodnew/MenuThird.aspx?LanguageType=1&SecondMenuID=5&ThirdMenuID=189
Tzeng, M. S., Kao, M. D., Yeh, W. T., and Pan, W. H., 1999. Food consumption frequency and eating habit among Taiwanese-NAHSIT 1993-1996. Nutritional Sciences Journal. 24, 59-80.
UNEP., 2002. UNEP Chemicals: Global mercury assessment. Issued by UNEP Chemicals, Geneva, Switzerland.
Urieta, I., Jalon, M., Eguilero, I., 1996. Food surveillance in the Basque Country (Spain). II. Estimation of the dietary intake of organochlorine pesticides, heavy metals, arsenic, aflatoxin M1, iron and zinc through the Total Diet Study, 1990/91. Food Additives and Contaminants 13, 29-52.
USEPA., 1998. Method 7473: Mercury in solids and solutions by thermal decomposition amalgamation, and atomic absorption spectrophometry. Retrieved 2003, from http://www.epa.gov/SW-846/pdfs/7473.pdf.
USEPA., 2001. Mercury update: Impact on fish advisories. EPA Fact Sheet June, 2001. Retrieved 2004, from http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/fish/advice/mercupd.pdf.
Valentino, L., Torregrossa, M. V., Saliba, L. J., 1995. Health effects of mercury ingested through consumption of seafood. Water Science and Technology 32, 41-47.
Vannoort, R. W., Hannah, M. L., Pichston, L., 1995. 1990/1991 New Zealand total diet study. Part 2: Contaminants elements. Wellington: ESR: Health, Wellington. New Zealand.
Vannoort, R., Cressey P., Silvers K., 2000. 1997/98 New Zealand total diet survey, Part 2: Elements. Selected contaminants & nutrients. Ministry of Health. Wellington, New Zealand.
Willett, W.C., Reynolds R. D., Cottrell-Hoehner S., Sampson, L., Browne, M. L., 1987. Validation of a semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire: comparison with a 1-year diet record. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 87, 43-47
Wu, S. J., Chang, Y. H., Fang, C. W., Pan, W. H., 1999. Food sources of weight, Calories, and three macro-nutrients-NAHSIT 1993-1996. Nutritional Sciences Journal 24, 41-58.
Yasutake, A., Matsumoto, M., Yamaguchi, M., Hachiya, N., 2003. Current hair mercury levels in Japanese: survey in five districts. The Tohoku Journal of Experimental Medicine 199, 161-169.
Ysart, G., Miller, P., Crews, H., Robb, P., Baxter, M., L’Argy, C.D., Lofthouse, S., Sargent, C., Harrision, N., 1999. Dietary exposure estimates of 30 metals and other elements from the UK Total Diet Study. Food Additives and Contaminants 16, 391-403.
Ysart, G., Miller, P., Croasdale, M., Crews, H., Robb, P., Baxter, M., L’Argy, C., Harrison, N., 2000. 1997 UK Total Diet Study-dietary exposures to aluminium, arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury, nickel, selenium, tin and zinc. Food Additives and Contaminants 17, 775-786.
林浩潭，翁愫慎，李國欽。2002。食品中重金屬含量及管制標準。行政院農業委員會農業藥物毒物試驗所。
衛生署。2003。 性別指標-國民營養。取自http://www.doh.gov.tw/ufile/doc/性別指標-國民營養_20031024.xls
衛生署。2008a。1824小教室-算算我的 BMI。取自http://food.doh.gov.tw/FoodNew/health/1824/1824_Index01.aspx
衛生署。2008b。成人均衡飲食建議量。取自http://food.doh.gov.tw/foodnew/MenuThird.aspx?SecondMenuID=16&ThirdMenuID=103
環保署。2006。首次大規模居民頭髮中汞含量調查出爐。環保政策月刊 9(1),8-9。