[1] European Union Waste in Electrical and Electronic Equipment(WEEE)Directive, 3rd Draft, May 2000.
[2] Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare Waste Regulation on Un-Reusable Pb, June 1998.
[3] K. S. Kim, S. H. Hun, and K. Suganuma, ” Effects of intermetallic compounds on properties of Sn-Ag-Cu lead-free solderd joints,” Journal of Alloys and Compounds, Vol. 352, pp. 226-236, March, 2003.
[4] S. Ou and K. N. Tu, “ A Study of Electromigration in Sn3.5Ag and Sn3.8Ag0.7Cu Solder Lines,” Proceedings of the 55th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, Vol. 2, pp. 1445-1450, June, 2005.
[5] Electronic packaging program, http://elearning.stut.edu.tw/teach/electron/
[6] 蘇宗麟, “Sn-3.5Ag/Ag厚膜銲錫球格陣列構裝界面反應研究” , 國立台灣大學材料科學與工程學研究所博士論文,(2002).[7] 羅金龍, “58Bi-42Sn無鉛銲料與球矩陣封裝鐘Au/Ni/Cu墊層界面反應之研究” , 國立中央大學化學工程與材料工程研究所碩士論文,(2001).[8] P. V. Zant, “ Microchip Fabrication,” 4th edition, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000.
[9] 侯振棋, “Si/Ta/TaCu/Cu/Ni-P/Sn-Pb銲錫隆點之製作與可靠度研究” , 國立成功大學材料科學及工程學系研究所碩士論文,(2001).
[10] 王祥文, “電遷移效應對錫微結構影響之探討” , 國立中央大學化學工程與材料工程研究所碩士論文,(2002).[11] 劉益銘, “電子構裝銦基無鉛銲錫與金厚膜及銀基板之界面反應研究” , 國立台灣大學材料科學與工程學研究所博士論文,(2001).[12] National Electronics Manufacturing Initiative (NEMI). http://www.inemi.org/ cms/projects/ese/lf_hottopics.html
[13] 郭世明, “錫銀銅覆晶銲錫隆點之熱/電遷移研究” , 國立成功大學材料科學及工程學系研究所碩士論文,(2005).[14] 許穎超, “錫銀銅無鉛銲錫電遷移之研究” , 國立交通大學材料科學及工程學研究所博士論文,(2005).[15] 黃雄年, “覆晶銲料的電子遷移研究” , 國立中山大學機械與機電工程研究所碩士論文,(2004).[16] H. B. Huntington, “ Diffusion in Solids: Recent Developments,” edited by A. S. Nowick and J. J. Burton, Academic Press, New York, pp. 303-352, 1975.
[17] T. Kwok, T. Nguyen, P. Ho, and S. Yip, Proceedings of the 25th IEEE International Reliability Physics Symposium, San Diego, California, April 7-9, p. 130, 1987.
[18] T. Kwok, T. Nguyen, P. Ho, and S. Yip, Proceedings of the 5th IEEE International VLSI Multilevel Interconnection Conference, Santa Clara, California, June 13-14, p. 252, 1988.
[19] K. N. Tu and K. Zeng, “ Reliability Issues of Pb-free Solder Joints in Electronic Packaging Technology,” Proceedings of the 52nd Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 1194-1200, 2002.
[20] R. Yongsunthon, A. Stanishevsky, J. McCoy, and E. D. Williams, “Observation of current crowding near fabricated voids in gold lines,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 78, pp. 2661-2663, April, 2001.
[21] 林彥良, “覆晶接點於承載電子流下之失效機制之研究” , 國立中央大學化學工程與材料工程研究所博士論文,(2007).[22] 蔡家銘, “覆晶接點於電子流作用下電遷移及熱遷移之研究” , 國立中央大學化學工程與材料工程研究所博士論文,(2006).[23] B. Y. Wu and Y. C. Chan, “ Electric current effect on microstructure of ball grid array solder joint,” Journal of Alloys and Compounds, Vol. 392, pp. 237-246, 2005.
[24] J. S. Zhang, Y. C. Chan, Y. P. Wu, H. J. Xi, and F. S. Wu, “ Electromigration of Pb-free solder under a low level of current density,” Journal of Alloys and Compounds, Vol. 458, Issues 1-2, pp. 492-499, June, 2008.
[25] J. He and Z. Suo, “ Statistics of Electromigration Lifetime Analyzed Using a Deterministic Transient Model,” Stress-Induced Phenomena in Metallization:7th International Workshop, pp. 15-26, 2004.
[26] S. H. Chiu, S. W. Liang, C. Chen, D.J. Yao, Y.C. Liu, K.H. Chen, and S.H. Lin, “ Joule Heating Effect under Accelerated Electromigration in Flip-chip Solder Joints,” Proceedings of the 56th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 663-666, June, 2006.
[27] S. W. Liang, Y. W. Chang, T. L. Shao, Chih Chen, and K. N. Tu, “ Effect of three-dimensional current and temperature distributions on void formation and propagation in flip-chip solder joints during electromigration,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 89, pp. 0221171-0221173, July, 2006.
[28] M. O. Alam, Chris Bailey, B. Y. Wu, Dan Yang, and Y. C. Chan, “ High Current Density induced Damage Mechanisms in Electronic Solder Joints: A State-of-the-Art Review,” International Symposium on High Density packaging and Microsystem Integration, Shanghai, pp. 1-7, June, 2007.
[29] Y-S. Lai, C-W. Lee, Y-T. Chiu, and Y-H. Shao, “ Electromigration of 96.5Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu Flip-chip Solder Bumps Bonded on Substrate Pads of Au/Ni/Cu or Cu Metallization,” Proceedings of the 56th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 641-645, June, 2006.
[30] J. D. Wu, C. W. Lee, P. J. Zheng, and S. Li, “ Effects of Substrate Metallization on the Degradation of Flip Chip Interconnects under Electromigration,” Proceedings of the 9th Int’l Symposium on Advanced Packaging Materials: Processes, Properties and Interfaces, pp. 25-30, 2004.
[31] J. D. Wu, C. W. Lee, P. J. Zheng, J. C. B. Lee, and S. Li, “ Electromigration Reliability of SnAgxCuy Flip Chip Interconnects,” Proceedings of the 54th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, Vol. 1, pp. 961-967, June, 2004.
[32] J. D. Wu, P. J. Zheng, Kelly Lee, C. T. Chiu, and J. J. Lee, “ Electromigration Failures of UBM/Bump Systems of Flip-Chip Packages,” Proceedings of the 52nd Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 452-457, May, 2002 .
[33] H. Balkan, D. Patterson, G. Burgess, C. Carlson, P. Elenius, M. Johnson, B. Rooney, J. Sanchez, D. Stepniak, and J. Wood, “ Flip-Chip Reliability: Comparative Characterization of Lead Free (Sn/Ag/Cu) and 63Sn/Pb Eutectic Solder,” Proceedings of the 52nd Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 1263-1269, May, 2002.
[34] Y-S. Lai and Y-T. Chiu, ” Failure Mechanism of Sn-Ag-Cu Flip-chip Solder Joints with Different Cu Weight Contents Under Comparatively Low Current Stressing,” Proceedings of the 57th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 1462-1466, June, 2007.
[35] J. W. Nah, K. W. Paik, J. O. Suh, and K. N. Tu, “ Mechanism of electromigration-induced failure in the 97Pb-3Sn and 37Pb-63Sn composite solder joints,” Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 94, pp. 7560-7566, December, 2003.
[36] K. Yamanaka, Y. Tsukada, and K. Suganuma, “ Electromigration effect on solder bump in Cu/Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu/Cu system,” Scripta Materialia, Vol. 55, pp. 867-870, November, 2006.
[37] Y. W. Chang, S. W. Liang, and C. Chen, “ Study of void formation due to electromigration in flip-chip solder joints using Kelvin bump probes,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 89, pp. 0321031-0321033, July, 2006.
[38] C. C. Lee, C. C. Lee, C. C. Chiu, K. M. Chen, F. Kuo, and K. N. Chiang, “ Electromigration Characteristic of SnAg3.0Cu0.5 Flip Chip Interconnection,“ Proceedings of the 56th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 1164-1169, June, 2006.
[39] T. Miyazaki and T. Omata, “ Electromigration degradation mechanism for Pb-free flip-chip micro solder bumps,” Microelectronics Reliability, Vol. 46, pp. 1898-1903, September-November, 2006.
[40] J-H. Lee, Y-D. Lee, Y-B. Park, S-T. Yang, M-S. Suh, Q-H. Chung, and K-Y. Byun, “ Joule Heating Effect on the Electromigration Lifetimes and Failure Mechanisms of Sn-3.5Ag Solder Bump,” Proceedings of the 57th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 1436-1441, June, 2007.
[41] S-H. Chae, X. Zhang, H-L. Chao, K-H. Lu, P. S. Ho, M. Ding, P. Su, T. Uehling, and L. N. Ramanathan, “ Electromigration Lifetime Statistics for Pb-Free Solder Joints with Cu and Ni UBM in Plastic Flip-Chip Packages,“ Proceedings of the 56th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 650-656, June, 2006.
[42] P. Su, M. Ding, T. Uehling, D. Wontor, and P. S. Ho, “ An Evaluation of Electromigration Performance of SnPb and Pb-free Flip Chip Solder Joints,” Proceedings of the 55th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, Vol. 2, pp. 1431-1436, June, 2005.
[43] T. Y. Lee, K. N. Tu, S. M. Kuo, and D. R. Frear, “ Electromigration of eutectic SnPb solder interconnects for flip chip technology,” Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 89, pp. 3189-3194, March, 2001.
[44] T. Y. Lee, K. N. Tu, and D. R. Frear, “ Electromigration of eutectic SnPb and SnAg3.8Cu0.7 flip chip solder bumps and under-bump metallization,” Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 90, pp. 4502-4508, November, 2001.
[45] Y. H. Lin, Y. C. Hu, C. M. Tsai, C. R. Kao, and K. N. Tu, “ In situ observation of the void formation-and-propagation mechanism in solder joints under current-stressing,” Acta Materialia, Vol. 53, pp. 2029-2035, April, 2005.
[46] K-L. Lin and S-M. Kuo, “ The Electromigration and Thermomigration Behaviors of Pb-free Flip Chip Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu Solder Bumps,” Proceedings of the 56th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 667-672, June, 2006.
[47] M-H. R. Jen, L-C. Liu, and J. D. Wu, “ Flip-Chip Ball Grid Array Lead-Free Solder Joint Under Reliability Test,” Journal of Electronic Package, Vol. 127, pp. 446-451, December, 2005.
[48] D. Li, C. Liu, and P. P. Conway, “ Characteristics of intermetallics and micromechanical properties during thermal ageing of Sn-Ag-Cu flip-chip solder interconnects,” Materials Science and Engineering A, Vol. 391, pp. 95-103, January, 2005.
[49] J-W. Nah and K-W. Paik, “ Investigation of Low Cost Flip Chip Under Bump Metallization(UBM) Systems on Cu Pads,” Proceedings of the 51st Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 790-795, June, 2001.
[50] G. A. Rinne, “ Emerging Issues in the Physics and Control of Electromigration in SnPb and Pb-Free Solder Bumps,” Proceedings of the 53rd Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 72-76, December, 2003.
[51] A. Kumar, M. He, Z. Chen, and P. S. Teo, “ Effect of electromigration on interfacial reactions between electroless Ni-P and Sn-3.5% Ag solder,” Thin Solid Films, Vol. 462-463, pp. 413-418, September, 2004.
[52] W. Lei, W. Fengshun, Z. Jinsong, A. Bing, and W. Yiping, “ Effects of electromigration on IMC evolution in Pb-free solder joints,” International Conference on the Business of Electronic Product Reliability and Liability, pp. 47-49, April, 2004.
[53] Y-C Hsu, T-L Shao, and C. Chen, “ Electromigration induced failure in SnAg3.8Cu0.7 Solder Joints for Flip Chip Technology,” Proceedings of the 4th Int’l Symposium on Electronic Materials and Packaging, pp. 287-290, December, 2002.
[54] W. Yiping, Z. Jinsong, W. Fengshun, A. Bing, W. Boyi, and W. Lei, “ Effects of UBM Thickness on Electromigration in Pb-free Solder Joints.” Proceedings of the 54th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, Vol. 1, pp. 998-1002, June, 2004.
[55] W. J. Choi, E. C. C. Yeh, K. N. Tu, P. Elenius, and H. Balkan, “ Electromigration of Flip Chip Solder Bump on Cu/Ni(V)/Al Thin Film Under Bump Metallization,” Proceedings of the 52nd Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 1201-1205, May, 2002.
[56] Y-S. Lai, K-M. Chen, C-W. Lee, C-L. Kao, and Y-H. Shao, “ Electromigration Reliability of Sn-37Pb and Sn-3Ag-1.5Cu/Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu Composite Flip-chip Solder Bumps with Ti/Ni(V)/Cu Under Bump Metallurgy,” Proceedings of the 7th Electronics Packaging Technology Conference, Vol. 2, pp. 786-791, December, 2005.
[57] K. N. Tu, “ Recent advances on electromigration in very-large-scale-integration of interconnects,” Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 94, pp. 5451-5473, November, 2003.
[58] T. L. Shao, I. H. Chen, and C. Chen, “ Electromigration Failure Mechanism of Sn96.5Ag3.5 Flip-Chip Solder Bumps,” Proceedings of the 54th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, Vol. 1, pp. 979-982, June, 2004.
[59] B. Ebersberger, R. Bauer, and L. Alexa, “ Reliability of Lead-Free SnAg Solder Bumps: Influence of Electromigration and Temperature,” Proceedings of the 55th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, Vol. 2, pp. 1407-1415, June, 2005.
[60] H. Balkan, “ Flip Chip Electromigration: Impact of Test Conditions in Product Life Predictions,” Proceedings of the 54th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, Vol. 1, pp. 983-987, June, 2004.
[61] R. N. Master, R. C. Blish, D. Morken, and E. Adem, “ Kinetics of C4 Bump Degradation in Overly Aggressive HTOL,“ Proceedings of the 50th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 60-63, May, 2000.
[62] H. Gan and K. N. Tu, “ Effect of Electromigration on Intermetallic Compound Formation in Pb-free Solder-Cu Interfaces,” Proceedings of the 52nd Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 1206-1212, May, 2002.
[63] Y. C. Hu, S. W. Wan, and C. R. Kao, “ Electromigration in Tin Thin Film, “ Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Electronic Materials and Packaging, pp. 463-467, December, 2002.
[64] Y-M. Kwon and K-W. Paik, “ Electromigration of Pb-Free Solder Flip Chip Using Electroless Ni-P/Au UBM,” Proceedings of the 57th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 1472-1477, June, 2007.
[65] M. Amagai, M. Watanabe, M. Omiya, K. Kishimoto, and T. Shibuya, “ Mechanical characterization of Sn–Ag-based lead-free solders,” Microelectronics Reliability, Vol. 42, pp. 951-966, June, 2002.
[66] K-S. Kim and K. Suganuma,” Development of new Sn-Ag-Cu lead-free solders containing fourth elements,” Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Environmentally Conscious Design and Inverse Manufacturing, pp. 414-415, December, 2003.
[67] A. Sharif, M.N. Islam, and Y.C. Chan, “ Interfacial reactions of BGA Sn–3.5%Ag–0.5%Cu and Sn–3.5%Ag solders during high-temperature aging with Ni/Au metallization,” Materials Science and Engineering B, Vol. 113, pp. 184-189, November, 2004.
[68] R. N. Master, A. Marathe, V. Pham, and D. Morken, “ Electromigration of C4 bumps in Ceramic and Organic Flip-Chip Packages,” Proceedings of the 56th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 646-649, June, 2006.
[69] C-L. Kao and Y-S. Lai, “ Electrothermal Coupling Analysis of Current Crowding and Joule Heating in Flip-chip Package Assembly,” Proceedings of the 54th Electronics Packaging Technology Conference, pp. 254-258, December, 2004.
[70] J. W. Nah, J. O. Suh, K. W. Paik, and K. N. Tu, “ Effects of current density on electromigration-induced failure in flip chip composite solder joints at room temperature,” Proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Advanced Packaging Materials: Processes, Properties and Interfaces, pp. 50-53, March, 2005.
[71] W. Lei, W. Fengshun, W. Yiping, and Z. Jinsong, “ The Effect of Current Crowding on Electromigration in Lead-free Flip Chip Bump Interconnect,” Proceeding of the 6th IEEE CPMT Conference on High Density Microsystem Design and Packaging and Component Failure Analysis, pp. 224-226, July, 2004.
[72] Z. Jinsong, W. Fengshun, W. Lei, and W. Yiping, “ Effect of current density and geometry structure on Pb-free solder joints electromigration,” Proceedings of International IEEE Conference on Asian Green Electronics, pp. 77-80, 2004.
[73] G. A. Rinne, “ Electromigration in SnPb and Pb-Free Solder Bumps,” Proceedings of the 54th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, Vol. 1, pp. 974-978, June, 2004.
[74] K. N. Tu and K. Zeng, “ Reliability Issues of Pb-free Solder Joints in Electronic Packaging Technology,” Proceedings of the 52nd Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 1194-1200, May, 2002.
[75] Lingyun Zhang, Shengquan Ou, Joanne Huang, K.N. Tu, Stephen Gee, and Luu Nguyen, “ Effect of current crowding on void propagation at the interface between intermetallic compound and solder in flip chip solder joints,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 88, pp. 0121061-0121063, 2006.
[76] F. M. d’Heurle, A. Gangulee, C. F. Aliotta, and V. A. Ranieri, “ Electromigration of Ni in Al thin-film conductors,” Journal of Applied Physics, Vol. 46, pp. 4845-4846, November, 1975.
[77] Luhua Xu, John H. L. Pang, and K. N. Tu, “ Effect of electromigration-induced back stress gradient on nanoindentation marker movement in SnAgCu solder joints,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 89, pp. 2219091-2219093, 2006.
[78] Seung-Hyun Chae, Brook Chao, Xuefeng Zhang, Jay Im, and Paul S. Ho, “ Investigation of Intermetallic Compound Growth Enhanced by Electromigration in Pb-Free Solder Joints,” Proceedings of the 57th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, Reno, NV, pp. 1442-1449, 2007.
[79] Kimihiro Yamanaka, Yutaka Tsukada, Katsuaki Suganuma, “ Studies on solder bump electromigration in Cu/Sn–3Ag–0.5Cu/Cu system,” Microelectronics Reliability, Vol. 47, pp. 1280-1287, 2007.
[80] D. Yang, Y. C. Chan, and K. N. Tu, “ The time-dependent melting failure in flip chip lead-free solder interconnects under current stressing,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 93, pp. 0419071-0419073, 2008.
[81] Jae-Woong Nah, J. O. Suh, K. N. Tu, Seung Wook Yoon, Chai Tai Chong, V. Kripesh, B. R. Su, and Chih Chen, “ Electromigration in Pb-free Solder Bumps with Cu Column as Flip-Chip Joints,” Proceedings of the 56th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, pp. 657-662, 2006.
[82] Hsiang-Yao Hsiao and Chih Chen, “ Thermomigration in flip-chip SnPb solder joints under alternating current stressing,” Applied Physics Letters, Vol. 90, pp. 1521051-1521053, 2007.
[83] Yi-Shao Lai, Kuo-Ming Chen, Chin-Li Kao, Chiu-Wen Lee, and Ying-Ta Chiu, “ Electromigration of Sn-37Pb and Sn-3Ag-1.5Cu/Sn-3Ag-0.5Cu composite flip-chip solder bumps with Ti/Ni(V)/Cu under bump metallurgy,” Microelectronics Reliability, Vol. 47, Issue 8, pp. 1273-1279, August, 2007.
[84] Yi-Shao Lai and Ying-Ta Chiu,” Failure Mechanism of Sn-Ag-Cu Flip-chip Solder Joints with Different Cu Weight Contents Under Comparatively Low Current Stressing,” Proceedings of the 57th Electronic Components and Technology Conference, Reno, NV, pp. 1462-1466, 2007.