臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

本橫斷性研究採用量化研究與質性研究方法探討英文寫作課動機下降的因素。594位英語系學生參與此研究。每位學生被要求填答56題的問卷。10位學生參與半標準化的訪談。收集的資料以描述性統計和推論性統計計算，輔以資料分析之說明。
因素分析得到八個動機下降的因素，訪談探討出一個動機下降的因素。九個動機下降的因素被組成兩類:內在動機下降因素及外在動機下降因素。內在動機下降因素包括(一)英文能力與自信，(二)寫作困難，(三)寫作成品，與(四)自我興趣。外在動機下降因素包含(五)老師的回饋，(六)教學方法與內容，(七)老師的人格特質與態度，(八)教室氣氛與教材，以及(九)同儕相關因素。
所有因素當中，老師的回饋影響學生的學習最甚，而自我興趣是最強的內在動機下降因素。研究結果顯示一般大學與科技大學的學生在自我英文能力與自信，老師的回饋，與自我興趣的動機下降因素中有顯著的差異。根據英文寫作課修習的學分不同，被分成兩組的學生在老師的回饋，寫作困難，與自我興趣的動機下降因素中也有顯著的差異，而依照英文能力被分成三組的學生在自我英文能力與自信的動機下降因素有顯著差異。
研究結果也指出英文寫作課動機下降之因素會帶來四種負面結果，(1)停止學習，(2)被動學習，(3)失去興趣，與(4)失去自信。而學生會用尋求幫助，自學，以及單純迴避的方式來面對英文寫作課動機下降的情況。根據研究結果，本研究建議，在英文寫作課上提供有效的回饋以及激發學生的興趣為最迫切需要的。最後，本研究亦提出教學上的相關討論，以達到寫作老師，教育管理人，和學生三贏的局面。

In an attempt to explore the demotivating factors in English writing courses, a cross-sectional research, using quantitative and qualitative methodology, was conducted in this study. Five hundred and ninety four English majors participated. Each was required to fill out a 56-item questionnaire. Ten students also took part in semi-standardized interviews. Collected data were computed and interpreted using descriptive statistics, inferential statistics, and data analysis.
Eight demotivating factors were extracted by performing factor analysis, and one factor was explored based on the interviews. Nine factors were group into two categories: internal demotivating factors and external demotivating factors. Internal demotivating factors included (1) English proficiency and self-confidence, (2) writing difficulty, (3) writing product, and (4) self-interest, whereas external factors encompassed (5) teacher feedback, (6) teaching method and content, (7) teacher personality and attitude, (8) classroom atmosphere and teaching material, and (9) peer-related factor.
Teacher feedback influenced student learning most in all factors, whereas self-interest was the strongest among the internal demotivating factors. Significant differences were found between comprehensive university students and technical university students on the factors of English proficiency and self-confidence, teacher feedback, and self-interest; between two groups of students divided by credits of English writing coursework they had taken on the factors of teacher feedback, writing difficulty, and self-interest; and among three groups of students divided by their levels of English proficiency on the factor of English proficiency and self-confidence.
The results of the study also indicated that English writing demotivation resulted in four negative student behaviors, (a) discontinuing learning, (b) passive learning, (c) losing interest, and (d) losing confidence. Students coped with their English writing demotivation by help-seeking, performing self-directed tasks, or simple avoidance. Based on the findings, the author suggests that providing effective feedback and stimulating interests of students are the two most compulsory requirements in English writing courses. Finally, suggestions of pedagogical implication are discussed in order to create a three-way win for composition instructors, educational administrators, and students.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i
CHINESE ABSTRACT ii
ENGLISH ABSTRACT iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS v
LIST OF TABLES ix
LIST OF FIGURES xi
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1
Background and demotivation 1
The purposes of the study 4
Research questions 5
Significance of the Study 5
Definition of Terms 6
Organization of this study 8
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW9
What is demotivation? 9
The definition of demotivation 9
The distinction between demotivation and amotivation 10
The criticisms to the definition of demotivation 11
Demotivation studies 12
What is motivation? 20
The definition of motivation 21
Motivation theories 21
English writing education in Taiwan 25
English education in Nine-Year Compulsory Education 26
English education in secondary education 26
English writing test on the University Admission test 28
English writing education in university 29
Summary 32
CHAPTER THREE METHOD 33
Research design and research process 33
Pilot study 35
Instrument 46
Quantitative section 46
Qualitative section 47
Participants 48
Quantitative section 48
Qualitative section 49
Data collection procedure and data management 50
Quantitative section 50
Qualitative section 54
Data analysis 54
Quantitative section 54
Qualitative section 55
CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS 58
Questionnaire distribution and the return rate 59
Descriptive statistics 59
Population background information 59
Population agreement among 43 items of the questionnaire 64
Inferential statistics 74
Factor analysis 74
Factor loadings and themes 74
Reliability of themes 78
Bivariate analysis 79
The school type variable 80
The comparison of population background between school types 80
Differences in demotivating items between school types 81
Differences in eight demotivating factors between two school types 90
The English writing credit variable 91
Differences in demotivating items between two English writing credit groups 91
Differences in eight demotivating factors between two English writing credit groups 92
The English proficiency variables 94
Differences among groups based on differentiation of English proficiency levels 94
Differences in demotivating items among three English proficiency levels 94
Differences in eight demotivating factors among three English proficiency levels 101
Open-ended questionnaire 104
Interview findings 105
CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION 111
Summary of the findings 111
Discussion 114
Demotivating factors in English writing courses 114
Internal demotivating factors 115
External demotivating factors 120
The influences of demotivating factors 125
Ways to overcome English writing demotivating factors 126
Pedagogical implications and recommendations 127
Conclusion 131
Limitations of the study 133
Suggestions for further research134
REFERENCES 136
APPENDICES 146
Appendix A The Result of the Value of Content Validity Index 146
Appendix B The Results of Item Analysis 149
Appendix C Questionnaire -- English Version 151
Appendix D Questionnaire -- Chinese Version 159
Appendix E Interview Protocol -- English Version 165
Appendix F Interview Protocol -- Chinese Version 166
Appendix G An Example of Protocol Transcript 167
Appendix H Interview Transcription 168
 
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Background of experts 39
Table 3.2 Participant background in two pilot tests 40
Table 3.3 Participant background in the first pilot test 41
Table 3.4 Participant background in the second pilot test 43
Table 3.5 Participant background in the main study 49
Table 3.6 Participant background in the interview 50
Table 3.7 Codebook 51
Table 3.8 English proficiency tests score comparison table 53
Table 4.1 Population background information 61
Table 4.2 Population learning background information 62
Table 4.3 Participant completion of English certificate(s) 63
Table 4.4 Distribution of English proficiency levels 64
Table 4.5 Academic Credit in English writing 64
Table 4.6 The descriptive analysis of participant agreement concerning English writing demotivating causes 68
Table 4.7 Variance explained by themes 74
Table 4.8 Factor loading of the 43 items 75
Table 4.9 Internal reliability of the demotivating factors 78
Table 4.10 KMO and Bartlett's Test 79
Table 4.11 Population background between the two school types 81
Table 4.12 Bivariate analysis on school types and English writing credit groups 83
Table 4.13 Descriptive statistics of eight demotivating factors between school types 90
Table 4.14 The results of independent t test between school types 91
Table 4.15 Descriptive statistics for eight demotivating factors between credit groups 93
Table 4.16 Independent t tests comparing credit groups 94
Table 4.17 Descriptive statistics in three English proficiency levels 96
Table 4.18 Descriptive statistics for eight demotivating factors among three levels of English proficiency 102
Table 4.19 Summary of ANOVA for three English proficiency levels 103
Table 4.20 Multiple comparisons among three group means 104
Table 4.21 The frequency of descriptions in four factors 105
Table 4.22 The frequency of mention of demotivating factors by interviewees 107

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 3.1 The research process 34
Figure 3.2 The process of the pilot study. 45
Figure 3.3 The process of data analysis 56
Figure 4.1 Age distribution 60
Figure 4.2 The frequency of five response alternatives 67

Arai, K. (2004). What ‘demotivates’ language learners?: Qualitative study on demotivational factors and learners' reaction. Bulletin of Toyo Gakuen University, 12, 39-47.
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191-215.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. NY: Freeman.
Berg, B. L. (2009). Qualitative research methods for the social sciences. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Britton, J. (1987). Writing, learning, and teacher education. In J. Davis & J. Marshall (Eds.), Ways of knowing-Research and practice in the teaching of writing (pp. 15-44). Iowa: Iowa Council of Teachers of English.
Brophy, J. (1983). Conceptualizing student motivation. Educational Psychologist, 18, 200-215.
Brown, H. D. (2004). Language assessment: Principles and classroom practices. NY: Pearson Education.
Brown, H. D. (2007a). Principles of language learning and teaching. NY: Pearson Education.
Brown, H. D. (2007b). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy. NY: Pearson Education.
Chambers, G. N. (1993). Taking the “de” out of de-motivation. Language learning Journal, 7, 13-16.
Chang, Roland C. (1984). 中學教作文與聯考作文之回顧與展望 [Teaching Composition in High Schools with Review and Outlook of Composition in the JCEE]. Proceedings of the First Conference on English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China (pp. 395-402). Taipei: Crane.
Chang, S. J. (1992). 寫作教學研究: 認知心理學取向 [Writing teaching research: Cognitive Psychology]. Kao-hsiung, Taiwan, ROC: Fu-Wen publisher.
Chang, W. C. (2006). 台灣的英語教育：現況與省思 [English education in Taiwan; Current status and reflection]. Bimonthly Journal of Educational Resources and Research, 69, 129-144.
Chen, D. W. (1997). The state of college EFL composition instruction-A survey of college EFL composition instructors' professional background and views. Proceedings of the Fourteenth conference on English teaching and learning in the Republic of China (pp.355-366). Taipei: Crane.
Chen, H. C. (2001). Diagnosis of difficulties in English writing and suggested remedial instructional strategies. Selected Papers from the Tenth International Symposium on English Teaching. (pp. 197-207). Taipei: Crane.
Chiou, H. J. (2006). Quantitative Research and Statistical Analysis in Social & Behavioral Sciences. Taipei, Taiwan, ROC: Wunan.
Chiou, H. J. (2008). Quantitative Research Methods 1: Research Design and Data Management. Taipei, Taiwan, ROC: Yeh Yeh Book Gallery.
College Entrance Examination Center (2011). 100學年度學科能力測驗統計資料 [The Statistical Data of the General Scholastic Ability Test in the 100 school year]. Retrieved from http://www.ceec.edu.tw/AbilityExam/AbilityExamStat.htm
Creswell, J. W. (2002). Educational research: planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. New Jersey: Pearson education.
Creswell, J. W., & Miller, D. L. (2000). Determining Validity in Qualitative Inquiry. Theory into Practice, 39 (3), 124-131.
Davis, L. L. (1992). Instrument review: Getting the most from a panel of experts. Applied Nursing Research, 5(4), 194-197.
Deci, E. L. (1975). Intrinsic motivation. New York: Plenum Press.
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self determination in human behaviour. New York: Plenum Publishing Corporation.
Dixon, J. H. (2001). Factor Analysis. In B. H. Munro (Eds.), Statistical Methods for Health Care Research (4th ed., pp. 303-329). New York: Lippincott.
Donovan, T. R., & MacClelland, B. W. (1980). Eight approaches to teaching composition. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English.
Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language teaching, 31, 117-135.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001a). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z. (2001b). Teaching and research motivation. Harlow, England: Pearson Education.
Dörnyei, Z. (2003a). Questionnaires in second language research: construction, administration, and processing. Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Dörnyei, Z. (2003b). Attitudes, orientation, and motivations in language learning: Advances in theory, research, and applications Language Learning, 53, 3-32.
Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Dörnyei, Z., & Murphey, T. (2003). Group dynamics in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dörnyei, Z., & Ottó, I. (1998). Motivation in action: A process model of L2 motivation. Working Papers in Applied Linguistics, 4, 43-69.
Erling, E. J. (2006). Englishes/ new Englishes/ world Englishes. An Encyclopaedia of the Arts, 4 (5), 405-410.
Falout, J., Elwood, J., & Hood, M. (2009). Demotivation: Affective states and learning outcomes. System, 37, 403-417.
Falout, J., & Falout, M. (2005). The other side of motivation: Learner demotivation. JALT2004 Conference Proceedings, Tokyo, 280-289.
Falout, J., & Maruyama, M. (2004). A comparative study of proficiency and learner demotivation. The Language Teacher, 28(8), 3-9.
Flower, L., & Hayes, J. R. (1981). A cognitive process theory of writing. College Composition and Communication. 32(4). 365-387.
Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London: Edward Arnold.
Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Gardner, R. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (1991). An instrumental motivation in language study: who says it isn't effective? . Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 13, 57-72.
Gorham, J., & Christophel, D. M. (1992). Students’ perception of teacher behaviors as motivating and demotivating factors in college classes. Communication Quarterly, 40, 239-252.
Gorham, J., & Millette, D. M. (1997). A comparative analysis of teacher and student perceptions of sources of motivation and demotivation in college classes. Communication Education, 46(4), 245-261.
Graham, S. (1994). Classroom motivation from an attributional perspective. In O'Neil H.F. Jr. and Drillings M. (Eds). Motivation: Theory and research (pp. 31-48). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hamada, Y., & Kito, K. (2008). Demotivation in Japanese high schools. JALT2007 Conference Proceedings. 168-178. Retrieved from http://jalt-publications.org/ archive/proceedings/2007/E084.pdf
Hasegawa, A. (2004). Student demotivation in the foreign language classroom. Takushoku language study, 107, 119-136.
Hayes, J. R., & Flower, L. S. (1980). Identifying the organization of writing processes. In L. Gregg & E. Steinberg (Eds.), Cognitive processes in writing (pp. 3-30). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Hyland, K. (2002). Teaching and researching writing. Harlow England: Pearson Educaion.
Hyland, F., & Hyland, K. (2001). Sugaring the pill: Praise and criticism in written feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 10, 185-212.
Ikeno, O. (2002). Motivating and demotivating factors in foreign language learning: A preliminary investigation. Ehime University Journal of English Education Research, 2, 1-19.
Kachru, B. B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English language in the Outer circle. In R. Quirk & H. G. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and13literature (pp. 11-30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 35, 31-36.
Kearney, P., Plax, T. G., Hays, E. R., & Ivey, M. J. (1991). College teacher misbehaviors: What students don't like about what teachers say and do. Communication Quarterly, 39, 309-324.
Keblawi, F. (2005). Demotivation among Arab learners of English as foreign language. Retrieved from http://www.readingmatrix.com/conference/pp/proceedings2005/keblawi.pdf
Keller, J. M. (2010.). Motivational design for larning and prformance The ARCS model approach. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-1250-3
Kikuchi, K. (2009). Listening to our learners' voices: what demotivates Japanese high school students? Language Teaching Research 13(4), 453-471.
Kikuchi, K., & Sakai, H. (2009). Japanese learners’ demotivation to study English: A survey study. JALT Journal, 31(2), 183-204.
Krashen, S. D. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Krashen, S. D. (1984). Writing: Research, theory, and application. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Lee, S. Y. (1998). Writing apprehension: Why some people don't perform their competence. The Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on English Teaching, 2, 627-638. Taipei, Taiwan: Crane.
Lee, S. Y. (2001). What makes it difficult to write: Theory, research, and implications. Taipei, Taiwan: Crane.
Littrell, R. F. (2005). Learning styles of students in and from Confucian cultures.
Retrieved from http://romielittrellpubs.homestead.com/files/littrell_eu_asean_crossculturallearningstyles.pdf
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). A theory of goal setting and task performance.. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (2002). Building a practically useful theory of goal setting and task motivation: A 35-year odyssey. American Psychologist, 57, 705-717.
Lu, H. J., & Chen, T. A. (2005). An Evaluation on Early Childhood English Education in Taiwan-- from the Perspective of Language policy. Journal of Science and Technology and Humanities of Transworld Institute of Technology, 2, 45-56.
Manolopoulou-Sergi, E. (2004). Motivation within the information processing model of foreign language learning. System, 32(3), 427-441.
Merriam, S. B. (2002). Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion and analysis. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Ministry of Education (2005). 教育部推動英語能力檢定測驗處理原則 [The Ministry of Education promotes the English proficiency tests and the principle of management. Retrieved from http://edu.law.moe.gov.tw/LawContentDetails.aspx?id=FL036216&KeyWordHL=&StyleType=1
Ministry of Education (2008a). 國民中小學九年一貫課程綱要語文學習領域（英語）[General guidelines of grade 1-9 curriculum of elementary and junior high school education in language learning (English)]. Retrieved from http://www.edu.tw/files/site_content/B0055/%E8%8B%B1%E8%AA%9E970526%E5%AE%9A%E7%A8%BF%EF%BC%88%E5%96%AE%E5%86%8A%EF%BC%89.pdf
Ministry of Education (2008b).普通高級中學課程綱要[The Curriculum of Normal High School Education]. Retrieved from http://163.20.87.3/newweb/earthweb/doc/970128.pdf
Ministry of Education (2010a). Main educational policies. Retrieved from http://history.moe.gov.tw/policy.asp?id=2
Ministry of Education (2010b). An educational overview. Retrieved from http://english.moe.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=4133&CtNode=2003&mp=1
Ministry of Education (2011). Education for primary and junior high school students. Retrieved from http://history.moe.gov.tw/policy.asp?id=2
Pintrich, P. R. (1999). The role of motivation in promoting and sustaining self-regulated learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 31, 459-470.
Pintrich, P. R., & Schunk, D. H. (1996). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Raimes, A. (1983). Techniques in teaching writing. Oxford Oxford University Press.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000a). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000b). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 54-67.
Sakai, H., & Kikuchi, K. (2009). An analysis of demotivation in the EFL classroom. System, 37, 57-69.
Schafer, R. B., & Tait, J. L. (1986). A guide for understanding attitudes and attitude change. Retrieved from http://www.soc.iastate.edu/extension/pub/comm/NCR138.pdf
Schunk, D. H. (1983). Ability verses effort attributional feedback: Differential effects on self-efficacy and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 75, 848-856.
Shellnut, B. J. (1996). A motivating influence in the field of instructional systems design. Retrieved from http://www.arcsmodel.com/pdf/Biographical%20Information.pdf
Sommers, N. (1982). Responding to students writing. College Composition and Communication, 33, 148-156
Song, Y. (2005). Motivation and demotivation in L2 learning. Sino-US English Teaching, 2(7), 79-81.
Steffens, K. (2006). Self-regulated learning in technology-enhanced learning environments: lessons of a European peer review. European Journal of Education, 41, 353-379.
Su, M. H. (2005). A study of EFL technological and vocational college students' language strategies and their self-perceived English proficiency. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 2, 44-56
Sugino, T. (2010). Teacher demotivational factors in the Japanese language teaching context. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 3, 216-226.
Takase, A. (2004). Investigating students’ reading motivation through interviews. Forum for Foreign Language Education, 3, 23-38.
Thanasoulas, D. (2002). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. Retrieved from http://iteslj.org/Articles/Thanasoulas-Motivation.html
Trang, T. T. T., & Baldauf, R. B. (2007). Demotivation: Understanding resistance to English language learning – The case of Vietnamese students. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 4(1), 79-105.
Tseng, D. S. D. (2008). 談英文作文的創意與組織 [Creative English Writing and Idea Organization]. Inservice Education Bulletin,25 (2), 27-38.
Tseng, D. S. D., Chang, C.H, Chen, M. L., Hong, C. L., Hong, J. Y., Huang, B. H., & Shr, C. H. (1989). Monitoring phenomena in EFL writing: A protocol analysis. The Proceedings of the 6th Conference on English Teaching and Learning in the Republic of China (pp. 341-388). Taiwan.
Tsuchiya, M. (2004). Factors in demotivation concerning learning English: A preliminary study of Japanese university students. The Kyushu Academic Society of English Language Education, 32, 39-46.
Tsuchiya, M. (2006a). Factors in demotivation of lower proficiency English learners at college. The Kyushu Academic Society of English Language Education 34, 87-96.
Tsuchiya, M. (2006b). Profiling of lower achievement English learners at college in terms of demotivating factors. Annual Review of English Language Education in Japan, 17, 171-180.
Vallerand, R. J., & Bissonnette, R. (1992). Intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivational style as predictors of behavior: A prospective study. Retrieved from http://www.er.uqam.ca/ nobel/r26710/LRCS/papers/55.pdf
Wang, T., & Malderez, A. (2006). Demotivation: A qualitative study of Chinese English learners at the tertiary level. Journal of Macao Polytechnic Institute, 2, 134-147
Weiner, B. (1986). An attributional theory of motivation and emotion. New York: Springer.
Weiner, B. (2000). Intrapersonal and interpersonal theories of motivation from an attributional perspective. Educational Psychology Review 12(1), 1-14.
Wu, W. V., & Marek, M. (2010). Making English a “habit”: Increasing confidence, motivation, and ability of EFL students through cross-cultural, computer-assisted interaction. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 9(4), 100-112.
Wu, W. V., Yen, L. L., & Marek, M. (2011). Using online EFL interaction to increase confidence, motivation, and ability. Educational Technology and Society, 14 (3), 118-129.
Yan, H. (2009). Student and teacher de-motivation in SLA. Asian social science, 5(1), 109-112.
Yaghmaie, F. (2003). Content validity and its estimation. Retrieved from http:// www.
sbmu.ac.ir/sitedirectory/centrallibrary/documents/mededuc/vol3no1spring%202003/3.1-5%20%20%20content%20validity%20and%20its%20estimatio.pdf
Zhang, Q. (2007). Teacher misbehaviors as learning demotivators in college classrooms: A cross-cultural investigation in China, Germany, Japan, and the United States. Communication Education, 56(2), 209-227.
Zhang, S. (1995). Reexamining the affective advantage of peer feedback in the ESL writing class. Journal of Second Language Writing, 4(3), 209-222.