臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

暴力遊戲被認為會造成玩家在遊戲後產生侵略感，更可能展現在日常生活中，而市場上的熱賣現象，更被認為影響甚鉅，不可不謹慎看待。過去研究者對暴力遊戲的研究由於遊戲技術進步的過於迅速的關係，對於各變項的定義各自不同，且忽略了遊戲過程中，情境變項的重要性。此外，做為娛樂媒介，遊戲必然會替玩家帶來娛樂的滿足，是正向的娛樂經驗。然而將遊戲後的正負向效果進行比較討論的文獻亦付之闕如。

因此，本研究欲探討與競爭相關的遊戲環境變項對於暴力遊戲後所產生的效果是否會有所影響，探討是否在暴力內容之外，遊戲情境才是影響侵略感的主因，並釐清過去的研究者為何結果不一的可能原因。整理過去暴力遊戲研究中的變項分類後，鎖定主要討論競爭相關的情境變項與性別差異的個人變項，進行實驗以看出它們對於侵略感、臨場感以及享樂感等三個依變項之間的關聯。

最後的研究結果顯示，玩家在與真人玩家對戰時，會有較高的臨場感與享樂感，但在侵略性上無太大差異。而在比較暴力內容與挫折感的影響時，會發現遊戲時的挫折感是引起侵略感的主因，並同時影響玩家的享樂感，暴力內容則影響玩家對遊戲是否真實的臨場感。此外，遊戲者性別與共玩者性質對於遊戲者的娛樂經驗較有影響，但對遊戲後所獲得之侵略性則否。

本研究期望能對相關研究領域提出新的思考方向，探討遊戲情境與經驗對玩家帶來的可能影響，藉此可了解在負面效果之外，暴力遊戲的娛樂價值。

It is reported that after playing violent video games, people will becomeaggressive, and perform aggressive behavior in their daily life. Because violent games are well received, we should carefully exam the effects caused by them. But little research has been done on the importance of gaming situation and discusses the positive effect – enjoyment. Besides, with the rapid gaming technology growth, we will attempt to find a clear definition about what is violent game and use it into whole paper.

In this paper, we will discuss if the competition situation variables can effect enjoyment, aggression and presence and exam the connections between them. The result shows that when playing with other players, gamers can get higher enjoyment and presence and compared to violent content, frustration is the main reason to effect
aggression and enjoyment. On the other hand, violent content affect presence.

Another result shows that gender variable had some impact on enjoyment experience, but not on aggression. These results suggests that violent games may not as bad as we think, depends on the context of gaming situation.

Key Words: violent games, frustration, aggression, presence, enjoyment, competition,
gaming situation, individual differences

第一章、緒論 ............................................. 1
1.1 研究背景 ................................................ 1
1.2 研究問題意識 ............................................ 5
1.3 研究價值 ................................................ 7
1.4 研究架構 ................................................ 8
第二章、文獻探討 ......................................... 9
2.1 電玩遊戲與暴力因素 ...................................... 9
2.1.1 電子媒介興起 .............................................. 9
2.1.2 電玩遊戲與暴力 ........................................... 11
2.1.3 暴力遊戲的影響 ........................................... 17
2.2 暴力遊戲的效果研究 ..................................... 21
2.2.1 GAM模型與其發展過程 ..................................... 22
2.2.2 遊戲情境與性別 .......................................... 25
2.2.3 臨場感(Presence) ......................................... 29
2.3 挫折與侵略 ............................................. 32
2.3.1挫折─侵略學說 ........................................... 33
2.3.2遊戲挑戰經驗與感知 ....................................... 36
2.4 享樂感 ................................................. 38
2.4.1娛樂與享樂的天性 ......................................... 38
2.4.1暴力遊戲與享樂感 ......................................... 40
2.4 研究假設與問題 ......................................... 43
第三章、對手虛實與玩家性別：實驗一 ...................... 45
3.1 實驗目的 ............................................... 45
3.2 實驗設計 ............................................... 45
3.2.1受試者 ................................................... 45
3.2.2真人對戰情境 ............................................. 46
3.2.3實驗流程 ................................................. 46
3.2.4實驗素材 ................................................. 47
3.2.4測量方式 ................................................. 48
3.3 研究資料分析 ........................................... 50
3.3.1樣本結構 ................................................. 50
3.3.2實驗控制檢定 ............................................. 51
3.3.3量表信度分析 ............................................. 51
3.3.4遊戲者性別以及對手性質對各依變項影響之分析 ............... 52
3.3.5臨場感、侵略感與享樂感之間之關係 ......................... 56
3.3.6性別差異造成的結果 ....................................... 56
3.4 研究結果與未來方向 ..................................... 57
3.4.1對手性質不同所帶來的臨場感、享樂感差異 ................... 58
3.4.2對手性質不同所帶來的侵略感差異 ........................... 60
3.4.3遊戲者性別差異帶來的影響 ................................. 61
3.4.4研究限制 ................................................. 62
第四章、挫折與暴力：實驗二 .............................. 64
4.1 實驗目的 ............................................... 65
4.2 實驗設計 ............................................... 66
4.2.1受試者 ................................................... 66
4.2.2實驗流程 ................................................. 66
4.2.3實驗素材 ................................................. 67
4.2.4前測 ..................................................... 70
4.2.5測量方式 ................................................. 71
4.3 研究資料分析 ........................................... 72
4.3.1樣本結構 ................................................. 72
4.3.2實驗控制檢定 ............................................. 73
4.3.3量表信度與因素分析 ....................................... 75
4.3.4暴力元素與挫折感對侵略感變項影響之分析 ................... 77
4.3.5暴力元素與挫折感對臨場感、享樂感變項影響之分析 ........... 84
4.3.6性別差異對侵略感、臨場感與享樂感變項影響之分析 ........... 86
4.4 研究結果與討論 ......................................... 87
4.4.1遊戲暴力與否對侵略感、臨場感、享樂感的差異 ............... 88
4.4.2遊戲挫折感對侵略感、臨場感、享樂感的差異 ................. 90
4.4.3遊戲者性別差異帶來的影響 ................................. 91
4.4.4研究限制 ................................................. 92
第五章、研究結果與討論 .................................. 93
5.1 研究發現與討論 ......................................... 93
5.1.1實驗變項對於侵略感的討論 ................................. 93
5.1.2實驗變項對於臨場感的影響 ................................. 98
5.1.3享樂感與臨場感、侵略感關係的討論 ......................... 99
5.1.4性別變項的討論 .......................................... 101
5.2 研究限制與未來建議 .................................... 102
5.2.1侵略感測量的疏失 ........................................ 102
5.2.2遊戲情境難度的狀況控制 .................................. 103
5.2.3缺乏與實際情境的對應 .................................... 103
5.3 小結 .................................................. 104
參考書目 ............................................... 105
附錄 ................................................... 117
附錄一、受測者實驗參與同意書 .................................... 117
附錄二、實驗一研究問卷 .......................................... 118
附錄三、實驗二研究問卷 .......................................... 123

姜漢儀、王秀芬、戴群達。（2011）《台灣數位生活型態與消費趨勢報告》。台北市：資策會產業情報研究所。
葉承函（2009）。《暴力電玩遊戲享受度性別、人格特質、移情能力、認同與涉入》，國立中正大學電訊傳播研究所碩士論文。
Adachi, P. J. C., &; Willoughby, T. (2011). The effect of violent video games on aggression: Is it more than just the violence? Aggression and Violent Behavior, 16(1), 55-62.
Anderson, C. A., Anderson, K. B., &; Deuser, W. E. (1996). Examining an affective aggression framework weapon and temperature effects on aggressive thoughts, affect, and attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22(4), 366-376.
Anderson, C. A., &; Bushman, B. J. (2001). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior, aggressive cognition, aggressive affect, physiological arousal, and prosocial behavior: A meta-analytic review of the scientific literature. Psychological Science, 12(5), 353-359.
Anderson, C. A., &; Carnagey, N. L. (2009). Causal effects of violent sports video games on aggression: Is it competitiveness or violent content? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45(4), 731-739.
Anderson, C. A., Carnagey, N. L., Flanagan, M., Benjamin, A. J., Eubanks, J., &; Valentine, J. C. (2004). Violent video games: Specific effects of violent content on aggressive thoughts and behavior. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 199-249.
Anderson, C. A., &; Ford, C. M. (1986). Affect of the game player - short-term effects of highly and mildly aggressive video games. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 12(4), 390-402.
Anderson, C. A., Gentile, D. A., &; Buckley, K. E. (2007). Violent video game effects on children and adolescents: Theory, research, and public policy. New York: Oxford University Press.
Anderson, C. A., &; Morrow, M. (1995). Competitive aggression without interaction - effects of competitive versus cooperative instructions on aggressive-behavior in video games. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21(10), 1020-1030.


Anderson, C. A., Shibuya, A., Ihori, N., Swing, E. L., Bushman, B.J., Sakamoto, A., Rothstein, H.R., &; Saleem, M. (2010). Violent video game effects on aggression, empathy, and prosocial behavior in Eastern and Western countries. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 151-173.
Andrade, E. B., &; Cohen, J. B. (2007). On the consumption of negative feelings. Journal of Consumer Research, 34(3), 283-300.
Apperley, T. H. (2006). Genre and game studies: Toward a critical approach to video game genres. Simulation &; Gaming, 37(1), 6.
Arriaga, P., Esteves, F., Carneiro, P., &; Monteiro, M. B. (2006). Violent computer games and their effects on state hostility and physiological arousal. Aggressive Behavior, 32(4), 358-371.
Arriaga, P., Esteves, F., Carneiro, P., &; Monteiro, M. B. (2008). Are the effects of Unreal violent video games pronounced when playing with a virtual reality system? Aggressive Behavior, 34(5), 521-538.
Arriaga, P., Monteiro, M. B., &; Esteves, F. (2011). Effects of Playing Violent Computer Games on Emotional Desensitization and Aggressive Behavior. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 41(8), 1900-1925.
Ashworth, L., Pyle, M., &; Pancer, E. (2010). The role of dominance in the appeal of violent media depictions. Journal of Advertising, 39(4), 121-134.
Ballard, M. E., &; Wiest, J. R. (1996). Mortal kombat (tm): The effects of violent videogame play on males' hostility and cardiovascular responding. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26(8), 717-730.
Barlett, C. P., Harris, R. J., &; Bruey, C. (2008). The effect of the amount of blood in a violent video game on aggression, hostility, and arousal. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(3), 539-546.
Barlett, C. P., &; Rodeheffer, C. (2009). Effects of Realism on Extended Violent and Nonviolent Video Game Play on Aggressive Thoughts, Feelings, and Physiological Arousal. Aggressive Behavior, 35(3), 213-224.
Baron, R.A., &; Richardson, D.R. (1994). Human Aggression. New York: Plenum.
Bartholow, B. D., &; Anderson, C. A. (2002). Effects of violent video games on aggressive behavior: Potential sex differences. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38(3), 283-290.
Bartsch, A., Appel, M., &; Storch, D. (2010). Predicting Emotions and Meta-Emotions at the Movies: The Role of the Need for Affect in Audiences' Experience of Horror and Drama. Communication Research, 37(2), 167-190.
Bennerstedt, U., Ivarsson, J., &; Linderoth, J. (2012). How gamers manage aggression: Situating skills in collaborative computer games. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 7(1), 43-61.
Bensley, L., &; Van Eenwyk, J. (2001). Video games and real-life aggression: Review of the literature. Journal of Adolescent Health, 29(4), 244-257.
Berkowitz, L. (1989). Frustration aggression hypothesis - examination and reformulation. Psychological Bulletin, 106(1), 59-73.
Berkowitz, L. (1993). Pain and aggression - some findings and implications. Motivation and Emotion, 17(3), 277-293.
Berkowitz, L., &; Harmon-Jones, E. (2004). Toward an understanding of the
determinants of anger. Emotion, 4, 107-130.
Bleich, S., Zillmann, D., &; Weaver, J. (1991). Enjoyment and consumption of defiant rock-music as a function of adolescent rebelliousness. Journal of Broadcasting &; Electronic Media, 35(3), 351-366.
Boardley, I. D., &; Kavussanu, M. (2010). Effects of Goal Orientation and Perceived Value of Toughness on Antisocial Behavior in Soccer: The Mediating Role of Moral Disengagement. Journal of Sport &; Exercise Psychology, 32(2), 176-192.
Bowman, R. P., &; Rotter, J. C. (1983). Computer games: Friend or foe? Elementary School Guidance and Counseling, 18, 25–34.
Brune, R. (2011). Why kids kill: inside the minds of school shooters. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 22(3), 468-470.
Bushman, B. J., &; Anderson, C. A. (2002). Violent video games and hostile expectations: A test of the General Aggression Model. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28(12), 1679-1686.
Bushman, B. J., Baumeister, R. F., &; Phillips, C. M. (2001). Do people aggress to improve their mood? Catharsis beliefs, affect regulation opportunity, and aggressive responding. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81(1), 17-32.
Bushman, B. J., Baumeister, R. F., &; Stack, A. D. (1999). Catharsis, aggression, and persuasive influence: Self-fulfilling or self-defeating prophecies? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76(3), 367-376.
Carpentier, F. R. D., Brown, J. D., Bertocci, M., Silk, J. S., Forbes, E. E., &; Dahl, R. E. (2008). Sad kids, sad media? Applying mood management theory to depressed adolescents' use of media. Media Psychology, 11(1), 143-166.
Cesarone, B., Elementary, E. C. o., &; Education, E. C. (1998). Video games: Research, ratings, recommendations. Illinois: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education.
Cruea, M., &; Park, S. Y. (2012). Gender Disparity in Video Game Usage: A Third-Person Perception-Based Explanation. Media Psychology, 15(1), 44-67.

Cullen, D. (2009). Columbine. New York: Twelve Story Press.
Dan, H. (2011, 7 26). Esa welcomes sweeping u.s. supreme court ruling on constitutional protections for video games. Retrieved from http://theesa.com/newsroom/release_detail.asp?releaseID=150
de Kort, Y. A. W., IJsselsteijn, W. A., &; Poels, K. (2007, October). Digital games as social presence technology: Development of the Social Presence in Gaming Questionnaire (SPGQ). Paper presented at the Proceedings of PRESENCE 2007: The 10th International Workshop on Presence, Barcelona, Spain.
De Simone, J. J., Verbruggen, T., Kuo, L.-H., &; Mutlu, B. (2012). Is cheating a human function? The roles of presence, state hostility, and enjoyment in an unfair video game. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(6), 2351-2358.
Denzler, M., Hafner, M., &; Forster, J. (2011). He Just Wants to Play: How Goals Determine the Influence of Violent Computer Games on Aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37(12), 1644-1654.
Devlin, M. B., Chambers, L. T., &; Callison, C. (2011). Targeting Mood: Using Comedy or Serious Movie Trailers. Journal of Broadcasting &; Electronic Media, 55(4), 581-595.
Dietz, T. L. (1998). An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games: Implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior. Sex Roles, 38(5-6), 425-442.
Dorfman, L., Woodruff, K., Chavez, V., &; Wallack, L. (1997). Youth and violence on local television news in California. American Journal of Public Health, 87(8), 1311-1316.
Dowler, K. (2003). Media consumption and public attitudes toward crime and justice: The relationship between fear of crime, punitive attitudes, and perceived police effectiveness. Journal of Criminal Justice and Popular Culture, 10(2), 109-126.
Eastin, M. S. (2006). Video game violence and the female game player: Self- and opponent gender effects on presence and aggressive thoughts. Human Communication Research, 32(3), 351-372.
Entertainment Software Association. (2012). AboUt thE compUtEr AnD ViDEo gAmE inDUStry. Retrieved from www.theesa.com/facts/pdfs/ESA_EF_2012.pdf
Entertainment Software Association. (2011). 2011 Entertainment Software Association: Industry Facts. Retrieved from www.theesa.com/facts/pdfs/
ESA_EF_2011.pdf
Farrar, K., &; Krcmar, M. (2006). Measuring state and trait aggression: A short, cautionary tale. Media Psychology, 8(2), 127-138.

Feng, J., Spence, I., &; Pratt, J. (2007). Playing an action video game reduces gender differences in spatial cognition. Psychological Science, 18(10), 850-855.
Ferguson, C. J. (2008). The school shooting/violent video game link: Causal relationship or moral panic? Journal of Investigative Psychology and Offender Profiling, 5(1‐2), 25-37.
Ferguson, C. J. (2011). Video Games and Youth Violence: A Prospective Analysis in Adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 40(4), 377-391.
Ferguson, C. J., &; Beaver, K. M. (2009). Natural born killers: The genetic origins of extreme violence. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 14(5), 286-294.
Ferguson, C. J., &; Dyck, D. (2012). Paradigm change in aggression research: The time has come to retire the General Aggression Model. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 17(3), 220-228.
Ferguson, C. J., Rueda, S. M., Cruz, A. M., Ferguson, D. E., Fritz, S., &; Smith, S. M. (2008). Violent video games and aggression - Causal relationship or byproduct of family violence and intrinsic violence motivation? Criminal Justice and Behavior, 35(3), 311-332.
Fleming, M. J., &; Rickwood, D. J. (2001). Effects of violent versus nonviolent video games on children's arousal, aggressive mood, and positive mood. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31(10), 2047-2071.
Fox, S., &; Spector, P. E. (1999). A model of work frustration-aggression. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20(6), 915-931.
Funk, J. B., Baldacci, H. B., Pasold, T., &; Baumgardner, J. (2004). Violence exposure in real-life, video games, television, movies, and the internet: is there desensitization? Journal of Adolescence, 27(1), 23-39.
Funk, J. B., Buchman, D. D., Jenks, J., &; Bechtoldt, H. (2003). Playing violent video games, desensitization, and moral evaluation in children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 24(4), 413-436.
Gackenbach, J.I. &; Bown, J. (2011, May). Video Game Presence as a Function of Genre. Loading. 5(8). Retreived from http://journals.sfu.ca/loading/index.php/ loading/index.
Gentile, D. A., Lynch, P. J., Linder, J. R., &; Walsh, D. A. (2004). The effects of violent video game habits on adolescent hostility, aggressive behaviors, and school performance. Journal of Adolescence, 27(1), 5-22. Goode, E., &; Ben-Yehuda, N. (1994). Moral panics: the social construction of deviance. Cambridge, MA : Blackwell Publishing .
Graybill, D., Kirsch, J. R., &; Esselman, E. D. (1985). Effects of playing violent versus nonviolent video games on the aggressive ideation of aggressive and nonaggressive children. Child Study Journal, 15(3), 199-205.
Groebel, J. (2001). Media violence in cross-cultural perspective: a global study on children’s media behavior and some educational implications. In D. G. Singer, &; J. L. Singer (Eds.), Handbook of children and the media (pp. 255–268). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Goldstein, J. (2005). Violent Video Games. In J. Raessens &; J. Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of Computer Game Studies (pp. 359 - 372). Cambridge, London: MIT Press.
Hartmann, T., &; Klimmt, C. (2006). Gender and computer games: Exploring females' dislikes. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(4), 910-931.
Hartmann, T., Toz, E., &; Brandon, M. (2010). Just a Game? Unjustified Virtual Violence Produces Guilt in Empathetic Players. Media Psychology, 13(4), 339-363.
Hartmann, T., &; Vorderer, P. (2010). It's Okay to Shoot a Character: Moral Disengagement in Violent Video Games. Journal of Communication, 60(1), 94-119.
Heeter, C. (1992). Being there: The subjective experience of presence. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 1(2), 262-271.
Hoffner, C. A., &; Levine, K. J. (2005). Enjoyment of mediated fright and violence: A meta-analysis. Media Psychology, 7(2), 207-237.
Huesmann, L. R. (2007). The impact of electronic media violence: Scientific theory and research. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(6), S6-S13.
Hwang, M. Y., Hong, J. C., Cheng, H. Y., Peng, Y. C., &; Wu, N. C. (2013). Gender differences in cognitive load and competition anxiety affect 6th grade students' attitude toward playing and intention to play at a sequential or synchronous game. Computers &; Education, 60(1), 254-263.
ISPR. (2000). Resources for the study of presence: About presence. Retrieved from http://www.ispr.info/
Ivory, J. D., &; Kalyanaraman, S. (2007). The effects of technological advancement and violent content in video games on players' feelings of presence, involvement, physiological arousal, and aggression. Journal of Communication, 57(3), 532-555.
Jansz, J. (2005). The emotional appeal of violent video games for adolescent males. Communication Theory, 15(3), 219-241.
Jeong, E. J., Bohil, C. J., &; Biocca, F. A. (2011). Brand logo placements in violent games Effects of Violence Cues on Memory and Attitude Through Arousal and Presence. Journal of Advertising, 40(3), 59-72.
Jin, S.-A. A. (2011). "I Feel Present. Therefore, I Experience Flow": A Structural Equation Modeling Approach to Flow and Presence in Video Games. Journal of Broadcasting &; Electronic Media, 55(1), 114-136.
Jin, S.-A. A. (2012). "Toward Integrative Models of Flow": Effects of Performance, Skill, Challenge, Playfulness, and Presence on Flow in Video Games. Journal of Broadcasting &; Electronic Media, 56(2), 169-186.
Kent, S. (2001). The Ultimate History of Video Games: from Pong to Pokemon and beyond... the story behind the craze that touched our lives and changed the world. New York: Three Rivers Press.
Kirsh, S. J. (2006). Children, adolescents, and media violence: a critical look at the research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Kneer, J., Glock, S., Beskes, S., &; Bente, G. (2012). Are Digital Games Perceived as Fun or Danger? Supporting and Suppressing Different Game-Related Concepts. Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking, 15(11), 604-609. doi: 10.1089/cyber.2012.0171
Knobloch, S., &; Zillmann, D. (2002). Mood management via the digital jukebox. Journal of Communication, 52(2), 351-366.
Krcmar, M., &; Farrar, K. (2009). Retaliatory Aggression and the Effects of Point of View and Blood in Violent Video Games. Mass Communication and Society, 12(1), 115-138.
Kuppens, P., &; Van Mechelen, I. (2007). Interactional appraisal models for the anger appraisals of threatened self-esteem, other-blame, and frustration. Cognition &; Emotion, 21(1), 56-77.
Lachlan, K. A., &; Tamborini, R. (2008). The effect of perpetrator motive and dispositional attributes on enjoyment of television violence and attitudes toward victims. Journal of Broadcasting &; Electronic Media, 52(1), 136-152.
Lee, K. M. (2004). Why presence occurs: Evolutionary psychology, media equation, and presence. Presence-Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 13(4), 494-505.
Lee, K. M., Jeong, E. J., Park, N., &; Ryu, S. (2011). Effects of Interactivity in Educational Games: A Mediating Role of Social Presence on Learning Outcomes. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 27(7), 620-633.
Lee, K. M., Peng, W., &; Klein, J. (2010). Will the experience of playing a violent role in a video game influence people's judgments of violent crimes? Computers in Human Behavior, 26(5), 1019-1023.
Lim, S., &; Reeves, B. (2010). Computer agents versus avatars: Responses to interactive game characters controlled by a computer or other player. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 68, 57-68


Lim, S., &; Reeves, B. (2009). Being in the Game: Effects of Avatar Choice and Point of View on Psychophysiological Responses During Play. Media Psychology, 12(4), 348-370.
Lin, S.-F. (2010). Gender Differences and the Effect of Contextual Features on Game Enjoyment and Responses. Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking, 13(5), 533-537.
Lombard, M., &; Weinstein, T. B. D. L. (2009). Measuring Presence: The Temple Presence Inventory. Cambridge, London: Presence.
Mandryk, R. L., Inkpen, K. M., &; Calvert, T. W. (2006). Using psychophysiological techniques to measure user experience with entertainment technologies. Behaviour &; Information Technology, 25(2), 141-158.
Markoff, J. (2002, January 7) The battle of the boxes: PC vs. TV. Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/2002/01/07/business/the-battle-of-the-boxes-pc-vs-tv.html
McGloin, R., Farrar, K. M., &; Krcmar, M. (2011). The Impact of Controller Naturalness on Spatial Presence, Gamer Enjoyment, and Perceived Realism in a Tennis Simulation Video Game. Presence-Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 20(4), 309-324.
Midlarsky, E., &; Klain, H. (2005). A history of violence in the schools. Violence in Schools, 37-57.
Moneta, G. B., &; Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). The effect of perceived challenges and skills on the quality of subjective experience. Journal of Personality, 64(2), 275-310.
Nabi, R. L., &; Krcmar, M. (2004). Conceptualizing media enjoyment as attitude: Implications for mass media effects research. Communication Theory, 14(4), 288-310.
Nowak, K. L., Krcmar, M., &; Farrar, K. M. (2008). The causes and consequences of presence: Considering the influence of violent video games on presence and aggression. Presence-Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 17(3), 256-268.
Oliver, M. (2003). Mood management and selective exposure. In J. Bryant, D. Roskos-Ewoldsen, &; J. Cantor (Eds.), Communication and emotion: Essays in honor of Dolf Zillmann (pp. 85–106). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Panee, C. D., &; Ballard, M. E. (2002). High versus low aggressive priming during video-game training: Effects on violent action during game play, hostility, heart rate, and blood pressure. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(12), 2458-2474.


Peng, W., Liu, M., &; Mou, Y. (2008). Do aggressive people play violent computer games in a more aggressive way? Individual difference and idiosyncratic game-playing experience. Cyberpsychology &; Behavior, 11(2), 157-161.
Prot, S., McDonald, K., Anderson, C., &; Gentile, D. (2012). Video games: Good, bad, or other?.Pediatric Clinics of North America,59(3), 647.
Priks, M. (2010). Does Frustration Lead to Violence? Evidence from the Swedish Hooligan Scene. Kyklos, 63(3), 450-460.
Przybylski, A. K., Weinstein, N., Ryan, R. M., &; Rigby, C. S. (2009). Having to versus Wanting to Play: Background and Consequences of Harmonious versus Obsessive Engagement in Video Games. Cyberpsychology &; Behavior, 12(5), 485-492.
Raney, A. A. (2004). Expanding disposition theory: Reconsidering character liking, moral evaluations, and enjoyment. Communication Theory, 14(4), 348-369.
Ravaja, N., Saari, T., Turpeinen, M., Laarni, J., Salminen, M., &; Kivikangas, M. (2006). Spatial presence and emotions during video game playing: Does it matter with whom you play? Presence-Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 15(4), 381-392.
Rideout, V., Foehr, U. G., &; Roberts, D. F. (2010). Generation m2: Media in the lives of 8-18 year olds. Retrieved on from http://www.kff.org/entmedia/upload/ 8010.pdf
Ryan, R. M., Rigby, C. S., &; Przybylski, A. (2006). The motivational pull of video games: A self-determination theory approach. Motivation and Emotion, 30(4), 344-360.
Schmierbach, M. (2010). "Killing Spree": Exploring the Connection Between Competitive Game Play and Aggressive Cognition. Communication Research, 37(2), 256-274.
Schmierbach, M., Limperos, A. M., &; Woolley, J. K. (2012). Feeling the Need for (Personalized) Speed: How Natural Controls and Customization Contribute to Enjoyment of a Racing Game Through Enhanced Immersion. Cyberpsychology Behavior and Social Networking, 15(7), 364-369.
Shafer, D. M. (2012). Causes of state hostility and enjoyment in player versus player and player versus environment video games. Journal of Communication, 62(4), 719-737.
Short, J. A., Williams, E., &; Christie, B.. (1976). The social psychology of telecommunications. London: Wiley.
Skalski, P., Tamborini, R., Shelton, A., Buncher, M., &; Lindmark, P. (2011). Mapping the road to fun: Natural video game controllers, presence, and game enjoyment. New Media &; Society, 13(2), 224-242.
Skoric, M. M., Teo, L. L. C., &; Neo, R. L. (2009). Children and Video Games: Addiction, Engagement, and Scholastic Achievement. Cyberpsychology &; Behavior, 12(5), 567-572.
Smith, S. L., Nathanson, A. I., &; Wilson, B. J. (2002). Prime-time television: Assessing violence during the most popular viewing hours. Journal of Communication, 52(1), 84-111.
Sparks, G. &; Sparks, C. (2000). Violence, mayhem, and horror. In D. Zillmann &; P. Vorderer (Eds.), Media entertainment: The psychology of its appeal (pp. 73-91). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Strizhakova, Y., &; Krcmar, M. (2007). Mood management and video rental choices. Media Psychology, 10(1), 91-112.
Tamborini, R., &; Bowman, N. D. (2009). Presence in Video Games. In C. Bracken &; P. Skalski (Eds.) Immersed in Media: Telepresence in Everyday Life. New York: Routledge.
Tamborini, R., Bowman, N. D., Eden, A., Grizzard, M., &; Organ, A. (2010). Defining Media Enjoyment as the Satisfaction of Intrinsic Needs. Journal of Communication, 60(4), 758-U402.
Tamborini, R., &; Skalski, P. (2006). The role of presence. In Vorderer, P. &; Bryant, J. (Eds.), Playing computer games: Motives, responses, and consequences. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Tamborini, R., Skalski, P., Lachan, K., Westerman, D., Davis, J., &; Smith, S. L. (2005). The raw nature of televised professional wrestling: Is the violence a cause for concern? Journal of Broadcasting &; Electronic Media, 49(2), 202-220.
Thompson, K. M., &; Haninger, K. (2001). Violence in E-rated video games. Jama-Journal of the American Medical Association, 286(5), 591-598.
Tremblay, P. F., &; Belchevski, M. (2004). Did the instigator intend to provoke? A key moderator in the relation between trait aggression and aggressive behavior. Aggressive Behavior, 30(5), 409-424.
Vorderer, P., Klimmt, C., &; Ritterfeld, U. (2004). Enjoyment: At the heart of media entertainment. Communication Theory, 14(4), 388-408.
Walkerdine, V. (2007). Children, gender, video games. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Walsh, D. A., &; Gentile, D. A. (2001). A validity test of movie, television, and video-game ratings. Pediatrics, 107(6), 1302-1308.
Wan, C. S., &; Chiou, W. B. (2006). Psychological motives and online games addiction: A test of flow theory and humanistic needs theory for Taiwanese adolescents. Cyberpsychology &; Behavior, 9(3), 317-324.
Weaver, A. J., &; Kobach, M. J. (2012). The Relationship Between Selective Exposure and the Enjoyment of Television Violence. Aggressive Behavior, 38(2), 175-184.
Wei, R. (2007). Effects of playing violent videogames on chinese adolescents' pro-violence attitudes, attitudes toward others, and aggressive behavior. Cyberpsychology &; Behavior, 10(3), 371-380.
Weibel, D., Wissmath, B., Habegger, S., Steiner, Y., &; Groner, R. (2008). Playing online games against computer- vs. human-controlled opponents: Effects on presence, flow, and enjoyment. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(5), 2274-2291.
Williams, K. D. (2009). The Effects of Frustration, Violence, and Trait Hostility After Playing a Video Game. Mass Communication and Society, 12(3), 291-310.
Williams, R. B., &; Clippinger, C. A. (2002). Aggression, competition and computer games: computer and human opponents. Computers in Human Behavior, 18(5), 495-506.
Willoughby, T., Adachi, P. J. C., &; Good, M. (2012). A Longitudinal Study of the Association Between Violent Video Game Play and Aggression Among Adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 48(4), 1044-1057.
Witmer, B. G., &; Singer, M. J. (1998). Measuring presence in virtual environments: A presence questionnaire. Presence-Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, 7(3), 225-240.
Zhen, S. J., Xie, H. L., Zhang, W., Wang, S. J., &; Li, D. P. (2011). Exposure to violent computer games and Chinese adolescents' physical aggression: The role of beliefs about aggression, hostile expectations, and empathy. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(5), 1675-1687.
Zillmann, D. (1979). Hostility and Aggression. Hillsdale, NJ: Earlbaum.
Zillmann, D. (1988).Mood management: Using entertainment to full advantage. In L. Donohew, H. E. Sypher, &; E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Communication, social cognition, and affect (pp. 147–171). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.