臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

研究背景：
　　我國研究顯示國小五年級到國中二年級係為青少年接觸菸品的高危險期；且我國國中學生吸菸率近年來並未明顯下降。研究青少年吸菸行為的相關文獻，大多著墨與青少年生活緊密連結的個人特質、家庭背景，以及學校環境；然而青少年本身與學校、縣市環境成一巢狀關係，並非完全獨立，故本研究希望能統合整個環境的影響，將從個人層級、學校層級、縣市層級之因子來探討環境特質對國中學生吸菸行為的影響，並同時了解哪些縣市與學校特質會有影響。

研究方法：
　　以民國99年國中學生吸菸行為調查(GYTS)為樣本，計抽樣222所學校，共21,282 人，經篩選後的有效問卷計有20,337份，。本研究有兩個依變項，一為「過去30天內是否吸菸?」，另一為「是否嘗試吸菸?」；個人層級的變項包含：「年級」、「性別」、「家長是否吸菸」、「零用錢」；學校層級之變項則有「該校家長吸菸率」與「校內控菸程度」。
縣市層級變項則由多個政府調查及相關資料庫取得同年度的資料，先透過單變項分析選出可進入最後分析模型之變項，最後再經探索性因素分析後區分為四種概念：「人口、人力概況與產業型態」、「經濟、消費能力」、「社會與物質剝奪程度」、「所得分配公平性」。由於GYTS為分層抽樣之調查，且檢驗組內相關係數後發現資料之間具有相依性，故使用多層次分析方法(multi-level analysis)進行資料分析。

研究結果：
　　年級越高、男性、父母親有吸菸以及每月的零用錢越高，越有可能嘗試吸菸與在過去30天內吸菸；在校正了個人層級變項之後，家長吸菸率與校內控菸程度皆會顯著影響國中生的嘗試吸菸與在過去30天內吸菸之行為，但校內控菸程度對於過去30天內吸菸的影響大於嘗試吸菸。
　　縣市層級的結果分為兩個分析模型，在校正了個人層級與學校層級之變項後，該縣市就業人口的初級行業比與兩個依變項呈現顯著正相關，其次，該縣市家長同住比也與兩個依變項有顯著相關。；吉尼係數僅在嘗試吸菸的模型裡有顯著正相關，但在過去30天內吸菸之模型未達顯著。

結論：
　本研究顯示青少年的吸菸行為會受到學校層級與縣市層級環境因素所影響，因此建議政府應加強具有高危險特質縣市或學校的菸害防制政策，嘗試以多重介入方法減少青少年的吸菸行為。
　　此外，中央政府應幫助經濟發展較低或是高收入不平等的縣市，能有足夠的資源來投入地方的公共建設、以及菸害相關健康服務（如：戒菸門診及相關資訊）；同時也應重視初級勞動者的工作權益，改善他們的勞動條件；以減輕居民的生活壓力及降低成人吸菸率，間接減少青少年接觸菸品的機會。

Background:
Most teenagers started experimenting on smoking in fifth to eighth grade in Taiwan. GYTS showed that smoking prevalence among adolescent has not reduced significantly in recent years. Most studies about teen smoking focused on personal, familial, and school-level factors. However these factors are situated among school environment and community environment, forming a nested relationship. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of environmental characteristic on teen smoking from individual level, school level and county level factors.
Methods:
This is a cross-sectional study. The database was from the Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) conducted in Taiwan in 2010. Data in this study are limited to 7 to 9 grade. A total of 20,337 students from 222 junior high schools participated in 2010. The overall response rate was 94.37% in 2010. The outcomes were “current smoking within 30 days” and “ever-tried smoking”. The individual level factors included grade, gender, parental smoking, and allowance. The school level factors included the prevalence of parent smoking and school smoke-free policies. And the county level factors were from other government statistics. We analyzed the data by multilevel logistic regression using SAS 9.2.
Results:
The results show about 25% junior high students had smoking experience and 8% students smoked in the past 30 days. Higher grade, male, parental smoking and higher allowance were positively associated with higher likelihood of current smoking and ever tried smoking. For school level variables, models indicate that the prevalence of parent smoking and weaker enforcement of school smoke-free policies were associated with current smoking and experimental smoking. After individual level and school level factors were adjusted, the rate of employment in primary sectors was significantly positive correlated with current smoking and experimental smoking. Teenagers that live in the county which have lower rate of parental cohabitation had more opportunities to start smoking. Gini-index was significantly positive correlated with ever-tried smoking, but not with current smoking.

Conclusions:
In this study, we found that those school level and county level factors were associated with current smoking and experimental smoking among adolescent. It is important to consider local variations. The finding could help central government design a better tobacco control policy. This research has suggested that central government should help junior high school enforce their smoke-free policies. The government should invest more resources to help local governments which had higher Gini-index to build the public facilities, improve working conditions, and supply more quit smoking services.

This is a cross-sectional study. The database was from the Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) conducted in Taiwan in 2010. Data in this study are limited to 7 to 9 grade. A total of 20,337 students from 222 junior high schools participated in 2010. The overall response rate was 94.37% in 2010. The outcomes were “current smoking within 30 days” and “ever-tried smoking”. The individual level factors included grade, gender, parental smoking, and allowance. The school level factors included the prevalence of parent smoking and school smoke-free policies. And the county level factors were from other government statistics. We analyzed the data by multilevel logistic regression using SAS 9.2.
Results:
The results show about 25% junior high students had smoking experience and 8% students smoked in the past 30 days. Higher grade, male, parental smoking and higher allowance were positively associated with higher likelihood of current smoking and ever tried smoking. For school level variables, models indicate that the prevalence of parent smoking and weaker enforcement of school smoke-free policies were associated with current smoking and experimental smoking. After individual level and school level factors were adjusted, the rate of employment in primary sectors was significantly positive correlated with current smoking and experimental smoking. Teenagers that live in the county which have lower rate of parental cohabitation had more opportunities to start smoking. Gini-index was significantly positive correlated with ever-tried smoking, but not with current smoking.

Conclusions:
In this study, we found that those school level and county level factors were associated with current smoking and experimental smoking among adolescent. It is important to consider local variations. The finding could help central government design a better tobacco control policy. This research has suggested that central government should help junior high school enforce their smoke-free policies. The government should invest more resources to help local governments which had higher Gini-index to build the public facilities, improve working conditions, and supply more quit smoking services.

目　錄
摘　要 i
Abstract iii
表目錄 v
圖目錄 vii
第一章　緒論 1
第一節　研究背景與動機 1
第二節　研究重要性 3
第三節　研究目的 7
第二章　文獻探討 8
第一節　個人層級之影響因子 8
第二節　學校層級之影響因子 12
第三節　區域／縣市層級影響因子 13
第四節　有效之菸害介入方法 17
第五節　總結 19
第三章　研究方法 20
第一節　研究架構 20
第二節　樣本及變項資料來源 22
第三節　研究樣本之篩選 24
第四節　研究變項之操作型定義 26
第五節　統計方法 33
第四章　研究結果 35
第一節　是否嘗試過吸菸 35
第二節　過去30天內吸菸 47
第三節　結果比較 58
第五章　討論 59
第一節　研究限制 59
第二節　結果討論 61
第六章　結論與建議 71
第一節　結論 71
第二節　政策建議 73
第七章　參考文獻 75
第一節　中文文獻 75
第二節　英文文獻 77

表目錄
表3-4-1. 依變項定義與資料來源 31
表3-4-2. 個人層級－自變項定義與資料來源 31
表3-4-3. 學校層級－自變項定義與資料來源 31
表3-4-4. 縣市層級－自變項定義與資料來源 32
表4-1-1. 樣本特徵與嘗試吸菸之盛行率 38
表4-1-2. 家長吸菸、初級行業比之描述性統計 39
表4-1-3. 學生嘗試吸菸率之描述性統計 39
表4-1-4. 「是否嘗試過吸菸」之個人層級、學校層級單變量分析 41
表4-1-5. 「是否嘗試過吸菸」－縣市層級變項之單變量分析 42
表4-1-7. 縣市層級分組及四大潛在因素 44
表4-1-6. 「是否嘗試過吸菸」之分析模型 46
表4-2-1. 樣本特徵與過去30天吸菸之盛行率 49
表4-2-2. 家長吸菸、學生吸菸率之描述性統計 50
表4-2-3. 「過去30天內吸菸」之個人層級、學校層級單變量分析 53
表4-2-4. 「過去30天內吸菸」－縣市層級變項之單變量分析 54
表4-2-5. 「過去30天內吸菸」之分析模型 57
表5-2-1. 相關係數表 70

 
圖目錄
圖2-3-1. Lorenz Curve 13
圖3-1 . 研究架構圖 21
圖3-2 . 樣本篩選流程及進入分析之樣本數 25
圖4-2-1. 縣市層級－家長吸菸率與學生吸菸率之相關散布圖 51
圖4-2-2. 學校層級－家長吸菸率與學生吸菸率之相關散布圖 51

何清松. (2004).九十二年度南投縣無菸校園輔導計量.行政院衛生署研究計畫, DOH92-HP-92001-4.
李宜家, 林慧淳, &;江東亮. (2003). 地區剝奪程度, 個人社經地位與臺灣男性成人的吸菸行為 Area Deprivation, Socioeconomic Status, and Smoking Behavior Among Male Adults in Taiwan. 臺灣公共衛生雜誌, 22(1), 10-16.
李景美, 張鳳琴, 賴香如, 江振東, 李碧霞, 陳雯昭, &;張瑜真. (2008). 台北縣市高職學生開始使用成癮物質之危險與保護因子追蹤研究 A Prospective Study of the Risk and Protective Factors of Substance Use among Vocational High School Students in Taipei. 臺灣公共衛生雜誌, 27(5), 399-410.
李景美. (1990). 台北市國民中學三年級男生吸菸行為之情境及家庭狀況因素分析研究. 學校衛生, 17, 38-47
林季宜. (1997). 某高職補校商科女生吸菸意向之研究-理性行動理論之應用. 台灣大學護理研究所碩士論文.
姚博文. (2005). 大高雄地區青少年學生吸菸盛行率與其影響因子之探討. 高雄醫學大學健康科學院公共衛生研究所碩士論文.
柯珊如. (2002) 家人及好友對高中生吸菸行為之影響. 國立台灣大學衛生政策與管理研究所碩士論文.
馬藹屏. (2000). 臺灣地區青少年對菸害防制法之認知、遵行意願及遵行行為之研究. 國立臺灣師範大學衛生教育學系博士論文.
陳淑真, 王淑珍, 李淑桂, &;周明智. (2004). 國中學生吸菸行為及其相關因素之探討 Tobacco Smoking Behavior of Students in Junior High School and Related Factors. 中山醫學雜誌, 15(2), 119-136.
陳霈儒. (2000). 國中學生對菸害防制法之遵行意願與遵行行為相關因素研究. 國立臺灣師範大學衛生教育研究所碩士論文.
陳錫琦. (1985). 從態度與主觀規範的因素探討國中生之抽菸意向. 國立台灣師範大學衛生教育研究所碩士論文.
彭若瑄. (2006). 以問題行為理論探討高中職學生吸菸行為之相關因素. 國立成功大學醫學院護理系研究所碩士論文.
黃正銘, 嚴雅音, 陳富莉, 許志成, 李建宏, 林雅瑩, &;黃曉靈. (2010). 學校層次菸害防制政策與個人層次特質對於學童吸菸行為之多層次分析: 以屏東縣的國小為例. 臺灣公共衛生雜誌, 29(2), 145-157.
黃芳玫, 林品妤. (2009). 同儕效果對於青少年抽菸、喝酒或吸食藥物的影響. 發表自台灣青少年成長歷程研究第三次學術研討會. 2009/12/04-05.
黃昱勳. (2008). 臺灣縣市層次因子與鄉鎮層次因子對個人健康的影響. 臺北醫學大學公共衛生研究所碩士論文.
黃淑貞. (1982). 國中男生開始抽菸之誘因及其仿效對象之研究. 國立台灣師範大學衛生教育研究所碩士論文.
黃淑貞. (1998). 他們為何吸菸？大學生樣本質性資料分析. 學校衛生, 33, 3-15
楊雪華, 陳端容, 李蘭, &;柯姍如. (2003). 雙親和同儕團體對高中生吸菸行為的影響 Parent and Peer Group Influence on the Smoking Behavior of High School Students. 醫學教育, 7(2), 128-139.
楊嘉芬. (2007). 台灣鄉鎮市區別自殺死亡率之分析. 南華大學社會學研究所碩士論文.
鍾宜君, 賴香如, 吳德敏, 李碧霞, 祝年豐, 劉姿鈺, &;李欣憶. (2005). 家長預防子女吸菸措施及相關因子研究~ 以宜蘭縣四所國中為例. 教育科學研究期刊, 50(1), 155-173.
魏毓映. (2007). 台灣地區不同縣市人口特質與都市化程度之成人吸菸率差異比較. 臺北醫學大學護理學研究所碩士論文.
 
第二節　英文文獻
Adams, M. L., Jason, L. A., Pokorny, S., &; Hunt, Y. (2009). The Relationship Between School Policies and Youth Tobacco Use*. Journal of School Health, 79(1), 17-23.
Amos A., &; Bostock Y. (2007). Young people, smoking and gender--a qualitative exploration. Health Education Research, 22(6), 770-781.
Ariza, C., Nebot, M., Tomás, Z., Giménez, E., Valmayor, S., Tarilonte, V., &; De Vries, H. (2008). Longitudinal effects of the European smoking prevention framework approach (ESFA) project in Spanish adolescents. The European Journal of Public Health, 18(5), 491-497.
Bancroft, A., Wiltshire, S., Parry, O., &; Amos, A. (2003). “It’s like an addiction first thing… afterwards it's like a habit”: daily smoking behaviour among people living in areas of deprivation. Social Science &;Medicine, 56(6), 1261-1267.
Bandi, P., Cokkinides, V. E., Westmaas, J. L., &; Ward, E. (2008). Parental Communication Not to Smoke and Adolescent Cigarette Smokers' Readiness to Quit: Differences by Age. Journal of Adolescent Health, 43(6), 612-615.
Barnett, R., Pearce, J., &; Moon, G. (2005). Does social inequality matter? Changing ethnic socio-economic disparities and Maori smoking in New Zealand, 1981–1996. Social Science &;Medicine, 60(7), 1515-1526.
Blakely, T. A., Lochner, K., &; Kawachi, I. (2002). Metropolitan area income inequality and self-rated health—a multi-level study. Social Science &;Medicine, 54(1), 65-77.
Can, G., Topbas, M., Oztuna, F., Ozgun, S., Can, E., &; Yavuzyilmaz, A. (2009). Factors contributing to regular smoking in adolescents in Turkey. Journal of School Health, 79(3), 93-97.
Castro, F. G., Maddahian, E., Newcomb, M. D., &; Bentler, P. M. (1987). A multivariate model of the determinants of cigarette smoking among adolescents. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 28(3), 273-289.
Chen, C. Y., Lin, I., Huang, S. L., Tsai, T. I., &; Chen, Y. Y. (2013). Disposable Income With Tobacco Smoking Among Young Adolescents: A Multilevel Analysis. Journal of Adolescent Health, 52(6), 724-30.
Chen, P. L., Huang, W. G., &; Chao, K. Y. (2009). Susceptibility to initiate smoking among junior and senior high school nonsmokers in Taiwan. Preventive Medicine, 49(1), 58-61.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciencies. Routledge.
de Vries, H., Engels, R., Kremers, S., Wetzels, J., &; Mudde, A. (2003). Parents’ and friends’ smoking status as predictors of smoking onset: findings from six European countries. Health Education Research, 18(5), 627-636.
Diez-Roux, A. V., Link, B. G., &; Northridge, M. E. (2000). A multilevel analysis of income inequality and cardiovascular disease risk factors. Social Science &; Medicine, 50(5), 673-687.
DiFranza, J. R., Savageau, J. A., Rigotti, N. A., Fletcher, K., Ockene, J. K., McNeill, A. D., ... &; Wood, C. (2002). Development of symptoms of tobacco dependence in youths: 30 month follow up data from the DANDY study. Tobacco Control, 11(3), 228-235.
Duncan, C., Jones, K., &; Moon, G. (1999). Smoking and deprivation: are there neighbourhood effects?. Social Science &;Medicine, 48(4), 497-505.
Dyer, N. G., Hanges, P. J., &; Hall, R. J. (2005). Applying multilevel confirmatory factor analysis techniques to the study of leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(1), 149-167.
Flay, B. R., Petraitis, J., &; Hu, F. B. (1999). Psychosocial risk and protective factors for adolescent tobacco use. Nicotine &; Tobacco Research; Nicotine &; Tobacco Research, 1(2), 59-65.
French, S. A., Story, M., &; Jeffery, R. W. (2001). Environmental influences on eating and physical activity. Annual Review of Public Health, 22(1), 309-335.
Frumkin, H. (2003). Healthy places: exploring the evidence. American Journal of Public Health, 93(9), 1451-1456.
Giles-Corti, B., &; Donovan, R. J. (2002). The relative influence of individual, social and physical environment determinants of physical activity. Social Science &;Medicine, 54(12), 1793-1812.
Gilman, S. E., Rende, R., Boergers, J., Abrams, D. B., Buka, S. L., Clark, M. A., ... &; Niaura, R. S. (2009). Parental smoking and adolescent smoking initiation: an intergenerational perspective on tobacco control. Pediatrics, 123(2), e274-e281.
Gold, D. R., Wang, X., Wypij, D., Speizer, F. E., Ware, J. H., &; Dockery, D. W. (1996). Effects of cigarette smoking on lung function in adolescent boys and girls. New England Journal of Medicine, 335(13), 931-937.
Goldstein, H., Browne, W., &; Rasbash, J. (2002). Partitioning variation in multilevel models. Understanding Statistics: Statistical Issues in Psychology, Education, and the Social Sciences, 1(4), 223-231.
Gómez Cruz, G., Barrueco Ferrero, M., Aparicio Coca, I., Maderuelo, J.A., &; Torrecilla García, M. (2009). Program for the prevention of smoking in secondary school students. Archivos de Bronconeumologia, 45(1), 16-23.
Griesbach, D., Amos, A. ＆ Currie, C.(2003). Adolescent smoking and family structure in Europe. Social Science &;Medicine, 56(1), 41-52.
Guo, G., &; Zhao, H. (2000). Multilevel modeling for binary data. Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 441-462.
Hall, J. A., &; Valente, T. W. (2007). Adolescent smoking networks: The effects of influence and selection on future smoking. Addictive Behaviors, 32(12), 3054-3059.
Hanson, M. D., &; Chen, E. (2007). Socioeconomic status and health behaviors in adolescence: a review of the literature. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 30(3), 263-285.
Hedman, L., Bjerg-Bäcklund, A., Perzanowski, M., Sundberg, S., &; Rönmark, E. (2007). Factors related to tobacco use among teenagers. Respiratory Medicine, 101(3), 496-502.
Heloma, A., Nurminen, M., Reijula, K., &; Rantanen, J. (2004). Smoking prevalence, smoking-related lung diseases, and national tobacco control legislation. CHEST Journal, 126(6), 1825-1831.
Hill, K. G., Hawkins, J. D., Catalano, R. F., Abbott, R. D., &; Guo, J. (2005). Family influences on the risk of daily smoking initiation. Journal of Adolescent Health, 37(3), 202-210.
Hollingworth, W., Cohen, D., Hawkins, J., Hughes, R. A., Moore, L. A., Holliday, J. C., ... &; Campbell, R. (2012). Reducing smoking in adolescents: cost-effectiveness results from the cluster randomized ASSIST (a stop smoking in schools trial). Nicotine &; Tobacco Research, 14(2), 161-168.
Hox, J. (2010). Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Hu, J., Galeone, C. A. R. L. O. T. T. A., Lui, R., Pelucchi, C., La Vecchia, C., &; Negri, E. (2005). Smoking and lung cancer in Harbin, northeast China. Annals of Oncology, 16(10), 1605-1608.
Huang, H. L., Chen, T., Chen, F. L., Magnus, J., Rice, J., Yen, Y. Y., &; Hsu, C. C. (2009). A study of smoking disparity and factors associated with children smoking behavior in the mountain and city schools in Taiwan. Journal of School Health, 79(2), 67-73.
Kandel, D. B., Kessler, R. C., &; Margulies, R. Z. (1978). Antecedents of adolescent initiation into stages of drug use: A developmental analysis. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 7(1), 13-40.
Kandel, D., &; Yamaguchi, K. (1993). From beer to crack: developmental patterns of drug involvement. American Journal of Public Health, 83(6), 851-855.
Kaplan, G. A., Pamuk, E. R., Lynch, J. W., Cohen, R. D., &; Balfour, J. L. (1996). Inequality in income and mortality in the United States: analysis of mortality and potential pathways. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 312(7037), 999.
Karp, I., O'loughlin, J., Paradis, G., Hanley, J., &; Difranza, J. (2005). Smoking trajectories of adolescent novice smokers in a longitudinal study of tobacco use. Annals of Epidemiology, 15(6), 445-452.
Kawachi, I., &; Kennedy, B. P. (1999). Income inequality and health: pathways and mechanisms. Health Services Research, 34(1 Pt 2), 215.
Kawachi, I., Kennedy, B. P., &; Glass, R. (1999). Social capital and self-rated health: a contextual analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 89(8), 1187-1193.
Kawachi, I., Kennedy, B. P., Lochner, K., &; Prothrow-Stith, D. (1997). Social capital, income inequality, and mortality. American Journal of Public Health, 87(9), 1491-1498.
Kennedy, B. P., Kawachi, I., &; Prothrow-Stith, D. (1996). Income distribution and mortality: cross sectional ecological study of the Robin Hood index in the United States. BMJ: British Medical Journal, 312(7037), 1004.
Khuder, S. A., Dayal, H. H., &; Mutgi, A. B. (1999). Age at smoking onset and its effect on smoking cessation. Addictive Behaviors, 24(5), 673-677.
Kleinjan, M., Engels, R. C., van Leeuwe, J., Brug, J., van Zundert, R. M., &; van den Eijnden, R. J. (2009). Mechanisms of adolescent smoking cessation: Roles of readiness to quit, nicotine dependence, and smoking of parents and peers. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 99(1), 204-214.
Kleinschmidt, I., Hills, M., &; Elliott, P. (1995). Smoking behaviour can be predicted by neighbourhood deprivation measures. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 49(Suppl 2), S72-S77.
Lantz, P. M., Jacobson, P. D., Warner, K. E., Wasserman, J., Pollack, H. A., Berson, J., &; Ahlstrom, A. (2000). Investing in youth tobacco control: a review of smoking prevention and control strategies. Tobacco Control, 9(1), 47-63.
Leatherdale, S. T., &; Manske, S. (2005). The relationship between student smoking in the school environment and smoking onset in elementary school students. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers &; Prevention, 14(7), 1762-1765.
Lewis, L. B., Sloane, D. C., Nascimento, L. M., Diamant, A. L., Guinyard, J. J., Yancey, A. K., &; Flynn, G. (2005). African Americans’ access to healthy food options in South Los Angeles restaurants. Journal Information, 95(4).
Li, D. X., &; Guindon, G. E. (2013). Income, income inequality and youth smoking in low‐and middle‐income countries. Addiction, 108(4), 799-808.
Liaw, K. M., &; Chen, C. J. (1998). Mortality attributable to cigarette smoking in Taiwan: a 12-year follow-up study. Tobacco Control, 7(2), 141-148.
Linetzky, B., Mejia, R., Ferrante, D., De Maio, F. G., &; Roux, A. V. D. (2012). Socioeconomic status and tobacco consumption among adolescents: A multilevel analysis of argentina’s global youth tobacco survey. Nicotine &; Tobacco Research, 14(9), 1092-1099.
Lovato, C. Y., Sabiston, C. M., Hadd, V., Nykiforuk, C. I. J., &; Campbell, H. S. (2007). The impact of school smoking policies and student perceptions of enforcement on school smoking prevalence and location of smoking. Health Education Research, 22(6), 782-793.
Matheson, F. I., LaFreniere, M. C., White, H. L., Moineddin, R., Dunn, J. R., &; Glazier, R. H. (2011). Influence of neighborhood deprivation, gender and ethno-racial origin on smoking behavior of Canadian youth. Preventive Medicine, 52(5), 376-380.
Mcalister, A. L., Perry, C., &; Maccoby, N. (1979). Adolescent smoking: Onset and prevention. Pediatrics, 63(4), 650-658.
Mistry, R., McCarthy, W. J., de Vogli, R., Crespi, C. M., Wu, Q., &; Patel, M. (2011). Adolescent smoking risk increases with wider income gaps between rich and poor. Health &;Place, 17(1), 222-229.
Müller-Riemenschneider, F., Bockelbrink, A., Reinhold, T., Rasch, A., Greiner, W., &; Willich, S. N. (2008). Long-term effectiveness of behavioural interventions to prevent smoking among children and youth. Tobacco Control, 17(5), 301-302.
Murnaghan, D. A., Sihvonen, M., Leatherdale, S. T., &; Kekki, P. (2007). The relationship between school-based smoking policies and prevention programs on smoking behavior among grade 12 students in Prince Edward Island: A multilevel analysis. Preventive Medicine, 44(4), 317-322.
Murphy, N. T., &; Price, C. J. (1988). The Influence of Self‐Esteem, Parental Smoking, and Living in a Tobacco Production Region on Adolescent Smoking Behaviors. Journal of School Health, 58(10), 401-405.
Pampalon, R., &; Raymond, G. (2000). A deprivation index for health and welfare planning in Quebec. Chronic Dis Can, 21(3), 104-113.
Pentz, M. A., Brannon, B. R., Charlin, V. L., Barrett, E. J., MacKinnon, D. P., &; Flay, B. R. (1989). The power of policy: the relationship of smoking policy to adolescent smoking. American Journal of Public Health, 79(7), 857-862.
Pickett, K. E., &; Pearl, M. (2001). Multilevel analyses of neighbourhood socioeconomic context and health outcomes: a critical review. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 55(2), 111-122.
Pickett, K. E., Kelly, S., Brunner, E., Lobstein, T., &; Wilkinson, R. G. (2005). Wider income gaps, wider waistbands? An ecological study of obesity and income inequality. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 59(8), 670-674.
Reid, J. L., Manske, S. R., &; Leatherdale, S. T. (2008). Factors related to adolescents' estimation of peer smoking prevalence. Health Education Research, 23(1), 81-93.
Rejineveld, S. A. (1998). The impact of individual and area characteristics on urban socioeconomic differences in health and smoking. International Journal of Epidemiology, 27(1), 33-40.
Repetto, P. B., Caldwell, C. H., &; Zimmerman, M. A. (2005). A longitudinal study of the relationship between depressive symptoms and cigarette use among African American adolescents. Health Psychology, 24(2), 209.
Ross, C. E. (2000). Walking, exercising, and smoking: does neighborhood matter?. Social Science &;Medicine, 51(2), 265-274.
Roux, A. V. D., Merkin, S. S., Arnett, D., Chambless, L., Massing, M., Nieto, F. J., ... &; Watson, R. L. (2001). Neighborhood of residence and incidence of coronary heart disease. New England Journal of Medicine, 345(2), 99-106.
Sasco, A. J., Merrill, R. M., Benhaı̈m-Luzon, V., Gérard, J. P., &; Freyer, G. (2003). Trends in tobacco smoking among adolescents in Lyon, France. European Journal of Cancer, 39(4), 496-504.
Schneider, J. E., Reid, R. J., Lowe, J. B., &; Hughey, J. (2005). Tobacco outlet density and demographics at the tract level of analysis in Iowa: implications for environmentally based prevention initiatives. Prevention Science, 6(4), 319-325.
Scragg, R., Laugesen, M., &; Robinson, E. (2002). Cigarette smoking, pocket money and socioeconomic status: results from a national survey of 4th form students in 2000. NZ Med J, 115(1158), U108.
Simons-Morton, B., Haynie, D. L., Crump, A. D., Eitel, P., &; Saylor, K. E. (2001). Peer and parent influences on smoking and drinking among early adolescents. Health Education &; Behavior, 28(1), 95-107.
Simons-Morton, B., Haynie, D. L., Crump, A. D., Eitel, P., &; Saylor, K. E. (2001). Peer and parent influences on smoking and drinking among early adolescents. Health Education &; Behavior, 28(1), 95-107.
Snijders, T. A. B., &; Bosker, R. (1999). Multilevel analysis: An introduction to basic and advanced multilevel modeling. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Song, A. V., Glantz, S. A., &; Halpern-Felsher, B. L. (2009). Perceptions of second-hand smoke risks predict future adolescent smoking initiation. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(6), 618-625.
Soteriades, E. S., &; DiFranza, J. R. (2003). Parent's socioeconomic status, adolescents' disposable income, and adolescents' smoking status in Massachusetts. American Journal of Public Health, 93(7), 1155-1160.
Townsend, P. (1987). Deprivation. Journal of Social Policy, 16(02), 125-146.
Vartiainen, E., Pennanen, M., Haukkala, A., Dijk, F., Lehtovuori, R., &; De Vries, H. (2007). The effects of a three-year smoking prevention programme in secondary schools in Helsinki. European Journal of Public Health, 17(3), 249-256.
Whitley, E., Lee, I. M., Sesso, H. D., &; Batty, G. D. (2012). Association of Cigarette Smoking From Adolescence to Middle-Age With Later Total and Cardiovascular Disease MortalityThe Harvard Alumni Health Study. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 60(18), 1839-1840.
Wiehe, S. E., Garrison, M. M., Christakis, D. A., Ebel, B. E., &; Rivara, F. P. (2005). A systematic review of school-based smoking prevention trials with long-term follow-up. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36(3), 162-169.