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研究生:許訓銘
研究生(外文):Hsun-Ming Hsu
論文名稱:中文條件句的認知語用研究:'要是' 和 '要不是'
論文名稱(外文):A Study of Conditionality in Chinese from Cognitive and Pragmatic Perspectives: Yaoshi and Yaobushi in Chinese Discourse
指導教授:王萸芳王萸芳引用關係
指導教授(外文):Yu-Fang Wang
學位類別:博士
校院名稱:國立高雄師範大學
系所名稱:英語學系
學門:人文學門
學類:外國語文學類
論文種類:學術論文
論文出版年:2014
畢業學年度:102
語文別:英文
論文頁數:234
中文關鍵詞:反事實條件句語法化心理空間後設言論
外文關鍵詞:CounterfactualityGrammaticalizationMental SpaceMetadiscourse
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中文摘要


本論文針對中文條件句標記「要是」和「要不是」進行對比分析,從語法化、心理空間和後設言談等理論來探討兩者使用功能上的差異。研究語料包括報紙新聞及一般會話。

本文發現兩者皆經歷語法化,但兩者語法化的過程不同。不同於「要是」,「要不是」是從「若不是」演變而來。由於語法化現象的發展不同,兩者的主觀性和交互主觀性也有所不同,此差異不僅造成兩者在條件句上出現頻率不同,也影響兩者在反事實條件句上使用的不對稱。

語法化的差異也導致兩者在反事實條件句中心理空間建構的不同。假設連詞「要不是」的使用否定了既成事實,直接構建了一個抽象虛擬的心理空間,而「要是」條件句則運用了時間指示詞和動貌標記等來表達與事實相反的思維,依賴語境來建構反事實的心理空間。

本文也對「要是」和「要不是」做為後設言談標記做比較分析。依據關聯理論,兩者的功能可以大致歸為四類:連接轉折標記、補充說明標記、緩和語氣標記、態度情感標記。本文發現「要是」在兩種篇章(書面語和口語)中,具有語篇功能和人際功能,然而「要不是」較少出現在口語篇章中,其人際功能也不如「要是」強。

關鍵詞: 反事實條件句,語法化,心理空間,後設言論



ABSTRACT

This dissertation reports the uses of Chinese conditional markers yaoshi and yaobushi, elaborating on their subtle differences and their functional complexity in Chinese written and spoken discourse. The database contains two sets of data: the newspaper corpus and naturally occurring conversation. Their idiosyncrasies are discussed and accounted for from the perspectives of grammaticalization, mental spaces, and metadiscourse.
The result obtained in the present study suggests that both yaoshi and yaobushi have undergone grammaticalization, but they show difference in the process of grammaticalization. Their development follows the general principles of grammaticalization (Traugott 1988, 1989), evolving from a major category to a minor one, from a lexical form to a grammatical one. Because of grammaticalization, their referential function is weakening and their pragmatic function is strengthened. However, different from the reanalysis of yaoshi, i.e., from [yao + shi] to [yaoshi], yaobushi may evolve from [ruo + bushi]. Ruo was gradually replaced by yao in modern colloquial Chinese after the grammaticalization of yao with the function of conditional marker. Their difference in grammaticalization, different subjectivity and intersubjectivity included, influences their performance in discourse and leads to their asymmetrical use in conditionals.
Because of their difference in grammaticalization, different mental space set-ups are involved when yaoshi and yaobushi are used in counterfactual conditionals. The counterfactual reading in yaobushi-marked conditional is naturally derived. On the other hand, in counterfactuals without bushi, counterfactuality is not signaled by the conditional marker yaoshi but rather by combinations of markers, including (past) temporal reference words and the perfective aspect marker le. Inferences from the real world knowledge and the cognitive ability of human beings are drawn to construct the mental space blending in yaoshi-marked counterfactuals.
This study has also identified various discourse-pragmatic functions of metadiscourse markers yaoshi and yaobushi. Both yaoshi and yaobushi display a range of textual and interpersonal functions, including logical connectives, topicalizers, interpretive markers, hedges, and attitude markers. From the relevance-theoretical perspective, they serve as markers of transition, elaboration, mitigation, and emotion. The most common and general function they serve in both discourse types is to organize the discourse as a coherent and well-organized text. However, we note that yaoshi has a stronger tendency than yaobushi toward interpersonal reading. Yaoshi is used more often than yaobushi in that it is more (inter-)subjective, addressee-oriented, and interactive-based.

Key words: counterfactuality, grammaticalization, mental space, metadiscourse


TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS------------------------------------------------------------ i
CHINESE ABSTRACT---------------------------------------------------------------- ii
ENGLISH ABSTRACT---------------------------------------------------------------- iii
LIST OF TABLES----------------------------------------------------------------------- ix
LIST OF FIGURES--------------------------------------------------------------------- x

Chapter One Introduction-------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.1 Background and Motivation-------------------------------------------------------------- 1
1.2 Objectives of the Study-------------------------------------------------------------------- 6
1.3 Organization of the Dissertation---------------------------------------------------------- 8

Chapter Two Literature Review------------------------------------------------- 11
2.1 General Background-------------------------------------------------------------------- 11
2.1.1 Classification of Conditionals------------------------------------------------- 12
2.1.1.1 Traditional Claim----------------------------------------------------- 12
2.1.1.2 Cognitive Classification of Conditional Relationship----------- 14
2.1.1.3 Interactional Classification of Conditionals---------------------- 16
2.1.2 Chinese Conditional Constructions------------------------------------------ 19
2.1.2.1 Characteristics of Chinese Conditionals--------------------------- 20
2.1.2.2 Chinese Counterfactual Conditionals------------------------------ 25
2.2 Previous Studies on Chinese Conditionals---------------------------------------- 27
2.2.1 Intuition-based Observation of Chinese Conditionals:-------------------- 28
2.2.1.1 Eifring (1988)--------------------------------------------------------- 28
2.2.1.2 Wu (1994)-------------------------------------------------------------- 31
2.2.2 Corpus-based Studies of Chinese Conditionals---------------------------- 34
2.2.2.1 Studies of Chinese Conditionals Based on Written Data-------- 34
2.2.2.1.1 Yang (2007)------------------------------------------------ 34
2.2.2.1.2 Ji (2009)---------------------------------------------------- 39
2.2.2.2 Studies of Chinese Conditionals Based on Spoken Data-------- 42
2.2.2.2.1 Su (2005)--------------------------------------------------- 42
2.2.2.2.2 Lai (2010)-------------------------------------------------- 45
2.3 Summary------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 46

Chapter Three Methodology---------------------------------------------------- 49
3.1 Theoretical Frameworks-------------------------------------------------------------- 49
3.1.1 Grammaticalization ------------------------------------------------------------ 50
3.1.1.1 Cline-------------------------------------------------------------------- 51
3.1.1.2 Grammaticalization across Clauses-------------------------------- 52
3.1.1.3 Subjectification and Intersubjectification-------------------------- 54
3.1.2 Mental Space Theory---------------------------------------------------------- 55
3.1.2.1 The Notion of Mental Space --------------------------------------- 56
3.1.2.2 Conditionals and Mental-space Set-ups--------------------------- 60
3.1.2.3 Space Blending Theory---------------------------------------------- 62
3.1.3 Metadiscourse------------------------------------------------------------------- 65
3.1.3.1 The Notion of Metadiscourse--------------------------------------- 66
3.1.3.2 A Taxonomy of Metadiscourse Markers: Two Broad Metadiscourse
Categories-------------------------------------------------------------- 67
3.1.4 Relevance Theory-------------------------------------------------------------- 69
3.1.4.1 Ostensive-inferential Communication----------------------------- 70
3.1.4.2 Context in Relevance Theory--------------------------------------- 71
3.2 Data------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 72
3.3 Summary------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 75

Chapter Four Grammaticalization of Yaoshi and Yaobushi-------------- 77
4.1 Polysemous Yaoshi and Yaobushi--------------------------------------------------- 78
4.1.1 Usage Patterns of Yaoshi------------------------------------------------------ 79
4.1.1.1 Direct Conditional Yaoshi----------------------------------------- 79
4.1.1.2 Indirect Conditional Yaoshi--------------------------------------- 84
4.1.2 Types of Yaobushi-------------------------------------------------------------- 87
4.2 Development of Yaoshi and Yaobushi as a Conditional Marker---------------- 90
4.2.1 Syntactic Change--------------------------------------------------------------- 90
4.2.1.1 Structural Change of Yaoshi as an Independent Unit------------ 91
4.2.1.2 Difference between Yaoshi-bushi and Yaobushi in Structural
Relation---------------------------------------------------------------- 95
4.2.2 Semantic Development-------------------------------------------------------- 99
4.2.2.1 Source Meaning of Yao--------------------------------------------- 100
4.2.2.2 Development of Yaoshi from Modal to Conditional in Modern Chinese--------------------------------------------------------------- 103
4.2.3 Pragmatic Extension of Conditionals--------------------------------------- 108
4.2.3.1 Biconditionality and Conditional Perfection--------------------- 108
4.2.3.2 Conditionals without CP-------------------------------------------- 110
4.3 Mechanisms and Motivation for Semantic Change------------------------------ 112
4.3.1 Metaphor and Metonymy as the Mechanisms of Semantic Change----- 113
4.3.2 Motivating Forces: Pragmatic Inferencing and Strengthening----------- 115
4.4 Subjectification and Intersubjectification of Yaoshi and Yaobushi------------- 118
4.4.1 From Objectivity to (Inter-)Subjectivity------------------------------------ 119
4.4.2 Varying Degrees of (Inter-)Subjectivity------------------------------------ 122
4.4.2.1 Subjectivity Difference between Yaoshi and Yaobushi---------- 123
4.4.2.2 Intersubjectivity Difference between Yaoshi and Yaobushi----- 127
4.5 Summary ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 130

Chapter Five Yaoshi and Yaobushi in Chinese Counterfactual Conditionals: From the perspective of Mental Space Blending------------ 132
5.1 Grammatical Markers in Chinese Counterfactuals------------------------------- 133
5.1.1 Conditional Use of Jiu and Cai---------------------------------------------- 133
5.1.1.1 Jiu and Cai as Space Builders-------------------------------------- 134
5.1.1.2 Some Differences between Jiu and Cai in Chinese Conditionals -139
5.1.2 Aspect Marker Le in Chinese Counterfactuals----------------------------- 143
5.1.2.1 Perfectivity and Counterfactuality--------------------------------- 144
5.1.2.2 Counterfactual Wish Construction--------------------------------- 146
5.2 Meaning Construction of Counterfactual Conditionals from the Perspective of Mental Space Blending-------------------------------------------------------------- 148
5.2.1 Yaobushi-marked Counterfactuals------------------------------------------- 149
5.2.2 Yaoshi-marked Counterfactuals---------------------------------------------- 154
5.2.2.1 Alternative Counterfactuals----------------------------------------- 155
5.2.2.1.1 Cognitive Reference Points------------------------------ 156
5.2.2.1.2 Epistemic Stance------------------------------------------ 158
5.2.2.2 Analogical Counterfactuals----------------------------------------- 163
5.2.2.2.1 Counterfactual Selves------------------------------------- 165
5.2.2.2.2 Scalar Reasoning------------------------------------------ 169
5.3 Variation in Clause Order of Chinese Counterfactuals-------------------------- 172
5.4 Conclusion----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 176

Chapter Six Analysis of Conditional Markers from the Perspective of Metadiscourse-------------------------------------------------------- 179
6.1 A Relevance-theoretical Perspective on Metadsicourse-------------------------- 180
6.2 Distribution of Yaoshi and Yaobushi as Metadiscourse Markers in Discourse 184
6.2 1 Textual Level-------------------------------------------------------------------- 185
6.2.1.1 Logical Connective--------------------------------------------------- 186
6.2.1.2 Topic Marker---------------------------------------------------------- 187
6.2.1.3 Coordinate Marker--------------------------------------------------- 190
6.2.1.4 Interpretive Marker-------------------------------------------------- 192
6.2.2 Interpersonal Level------------------------------------------------------------ 193
6.2.2.1 Hedge Marker--------------------------------------------------------- 193
6.2.2.2 Attitude Marker------------------------------------------------------- 195
6.2.2.3 Engagement Marker------------------------------------------------- 196
6.2.3 The distribution of Yaoshi and Yaobushi across Different Discourse Modes------------------------------------------------------------------- 198
6.2.4 Possible Reasons for the Variation in the Use of Yaoshi and Yaobushi between Written and Spoken Discourse----------------------------- 203
6.3 Yaoshi and Yaobushi from the Perspective of Relevance Theory--------------- 205
6.3.1 Marker of Transition----------------------------------------------------------- 206
6.3.2 Marker of Elaborator---------------------------------------------------------- 206
6.3.3 Marker of Mitigation----------------------------------------------------------- 207
6.3.4 Marker of Emotion------------------------------------------------------------- 208
6.4 Yaoshi/Yaobushi and the Construction of Interpersonal Relationship---------- 209
6.3.1 A Device of Politeness and Face-saving------------------------------------- 210
6.3.2 A Key Role in Persuasion----------------------------------------------------- 212
6.4 Summary------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 214

Chapter Seven Conclusion-------------------------------------------------------- 216
7.1 Summary of the Findings------------------------------------------------------------ 216
7.2 Significance and Implication-------------------------------------------------------- 220
7.3 Suggestions for Further Study------------------------------------------------------ 222

Reference---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 224
Appendix---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 232













LIST OF TABLES



Table Page
2.1 Syntactic categorization scheme of if-conditionals------------------------------- 12
2.2 Semantic categorization scheme of if-conditionals------------------------------- 13
2.3 Cognitive-based classification of if-conditionals--------------------------------- 15
2.4 Conditional connectors in antecedent and consequent clauses---------------- 22
2.5 The five major types of Chinese conditionals----------------------------------- 23
2.6 Linguistic devices in Chinese counterfactuals (and examples)---------------- 26
2.7 Chinese if-words--------------------------------------------------------------------- 32
2.8 Frequency of discourse functions of Chinese conditionals-------------------- 46
3.1 Occurrences of yaoshi and yaobushi in written and spoken discourse--------- 74
4.1 Usage of yaoshi in the data---------------------------------------------------------- 87
4.2 Types of yaobushi in the data-------------------------------------------------------- 90
4.3 Yaoshi and Yaobushi co-occurring with mood particles and punctuation in the written data----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 124
4.4 Distribution of yaoshi and yaobushi in direct and indirect conditionals------- 127
6.1 Distribution of yaoshi and yaobushi in the database-------------------------------199
6.2 Occurrence of yaoshi and yaobushi at the textual level in the data------------- 200
6.3 Occurrence of yaoshi and yaobushi at the interpersonal level in the data----- 201





LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
2.1 Representation of the mental space set-ups in a bushi-marked counterfactual
Conditional----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 37
2.2 Representation of mental space established in a ruguo counterfactual sentence-38
3.1 Mental space, relation ---------------------------------------------------------------- 56
3.2 Analysis of mental spaces in (3-2)------------------------------------------------- 58
3.3 Example (3-3) If he decided to file the suit, the hospital’s lawyers would
be allowed to interview him for discovery----------------------------------------- 62
3.4 The basic diagram of space blending----------------------------------------------- 63
4.1 Reanalysis of yaoshi------------------------------------------------------------------ 95
4.2 Grammaticalization process of yaobushi------------------------------------------- 99
4.3 Semantic development paths of yao(shi)------------------------------------------ 106
5.1 Space representation of a yaoshi… jiu construction------------------------------ 135
5.2 Space representation of a cai-conditional------------------------------------------ 138
5.3 Blending network of example (5-11)----------------------------------------------- 152
5.4 Development of mental processing in (5-11)-------------------------------------- 153
5.5 Cognitive reference relation--------------------------------------------------------- 157
5.6 Space blending network of example (5-14)--------------------------------------- 161
5.7 Development of mental processing in (5-14)------------------------------------- 162
5.8 Conceptual integration network of example (5-16)------------------------------ 168
5.9 Mental processing of example (5-16)---------------------------------------------- 169
5.10 Scalar reasoning concerning academic ability in example (5-17)------------ 172
5.11 Space set-ups for the conditional in (5-20)--------------------------------------- 175

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