為了瞭解西北太平洋熱帶性鱸鰻之加入動態和初期生活史以及菲律賓水域同種鰻的洄游環境史。本研究調查2005-2009年台灣東部秀姑巒溪河口玻璃鰻的種類組成，結果發現鱸鰻的玻璃鰻數量最多，占總捕獲量的98.4%；另外有少量的太平洋雙色鰻 (1.6%) 及日本鰻(<1%)。熱帶性鱸鰻的玻璃鰻的主要出現季節為春夏天，但幾乎終年都可發現；而太平洋雙色鰻的玻璃鰻的主要出現季節為秋天；溫帶性日本鰻的玻璃鰻的出現季節則是在冬天。
透過東北亞地區不同河口所捕獲的鱸鰻和日本鰻玻璃鰻的耳石日周輪分析顯示，柳葉鰻變態的日齡及早期成長率對於此兩種同域分布鰻魚的分離洄游及緯度分布扮演重要的角色。成長快、變態早的鱸鰻柳葉鰻較早加入到菲律賓；而成長慢、延遲變態的日本鰻柳葉鰻繼續向南(經由明答那峨海流)及向北(經由黑潮)飄送。另一方面，日本鰻柳葉鰻抵達菲律賓水域時尚未到變態階段，所以也不會洄游到河口，而是繼續向北散佈。這可能就是日本鰻很少在菲律賓發現而鱸鰻在菲律賓數量很多的原因。
電子微探儀(EPMA)分析顯示，採集於菲律賓呂宋島東部河川的鱸鰻耳石鍶鈣比數據和之前所報導的日本及越南的鱸鰻以及日本鰻的洄游環境史非常不同。在耳石鰻線標記之後到耳石邊緣的鍶鈣比都低於4 x 103，顯示菲律賓呂宋島東側的鱸鰻在鰻線階段進入淡水溪流後一直到被捕獲的黃鰻階段為止都悽息在淡水環境中。此結果和台灣的鱸鰻一樣，在黃鰻階段都只棲息在淡水中。而日本鰻在黃鰻階段的棲地利用則較為彈性，可在海水、鹹淡水和淡水之間洄游。種間競爭、環境喜好性以及生產力可能是造成鱸鰻和日本鰻的棲地喜好性不同的原因。本研究之發現可提供鰻魚資源保育之參考。

The present study investigated the recruitment dynamics and early life history of the tropical eel Anguilla marmorata in the northwestern Pacific as well as the migratory environmental history of the eel in the Philippine waters.
Analysis of the species composition of the recruiting glass eels in the estuary of the Hsiukuluan River, Eastern Taiwan from 2005-2009 revealed that A. marmorata was the most dominant eel species making up to 98.4% of the total catch while there were very few A. bicolor pacifica (1.6%) and A. japonica (<1%). Tropical eel species A. marmorata recruited mainly to the estuary during spring to summer but can be found year-round while A. bicolor pacifica recruited mainly during autumn. The temperate species, A. japonica, recruited mainly during winter.
Examinations of the otolith daily growth increments of A. marmorata and A. japonica glass eels collected from various rivers and estuaries in East Asia from 1992-2008 indicated that age at metamorphosis and early growth rate seem to play an important role in the segregative migration and latitudinal distribution of these two sympatric eel species in the northwestern Pacific. Faster-growing and earlier-metamorphosing leptocephali of A. marmorata recruited earlier in the Philippines while its slower-growing, delayed metamorphosing leptocephali dispersed southward (via the Mindanao Current) and northward (via the Kuroshio Current). On the other hand, the A. japonica leptocephali which arrive in the Philippine waters are apparently too young to metamorphose and migrate towards the estuaries so it will continue to drift northwards. This must be the reason why Japanese eels are seldom found in the Philippines while A. marmorata occurs in abundance.
The Sr:Ca profile in the otoliths of yellow-stage A. marmorata collected in the river of eastern Luzon, the Philippines in August 2008 revealed that it’s migratory environmental history is quite different from that previously reported from Japan and Vietnam and from A. japonica. Electron probe microanalyzer showed that after the elver check, the Sr:Ca ratio until the otolith edge were less than 4 x 10-3, indicating that after recruitment, A. marmorata just stayed in freshwater until capture, which is similar to that of A. marmorata in Taiwan. On the contrary, A. japonica has a more flexible migratory behavior in the yellow stage. It can migrate among seawater, brackish water and freshwater in the yellow eel stage. Interspecific competition, environmental factors and the productivity of the environment may play an important role in the habitat preference of A. marmorata throughout its species range. The findings of this study can provide the information for the eel conservation and management.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page………………………………………………………………………………………….i
Approval sheet…………………………………………………………………………………...ii
Acknowledgement……………………………………………………………………………….iii
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………...v
Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………..ix
List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………………...xiii
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………………………...xv
List of Appendices……………………………………………………………………………xxiii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Life history pattern of freshwater eel (Anguilla spp.)…………………………………1
1.2 Freshwater eel fishery and its problem………………………………………………..4
1.3 Population decline of freshwater eel…………………………………………………..4
1.4 Biology and population structure of Anguilla marmorata…………………………...10
1.5 Application of otolith daily growth increment and microchemistry to life history study………………………………………………………………………………….14
1.6 Current research status of Anguilla marmorata……………………………………...17
1.7 Objectives of this study………………………………………………………………19
CHAPTER 2: MATERIAL AND METHODS
2.1 Glass eel collection
2.1.1 Temporal sampling………………………………………………………...20
2.1.2 Spatial sampling……………………………………………………………24
2.2 Juvenile eel collection………………………………………………………………..27
2.3 Glass eel species identification and morphometric measurements…………………..29
2.4 DNA extraction, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification and phylogenetic
analysis………………………………………………………………………………..30
2.5 Determination of glass eel developmental stages……………………………………33
2.6 Morphometric measurements of adult eels…………………………………………..37
2.7 Otolith extraction and preparation for daily growth increment and microchemistry
analyses……………………………………………………………………………...39
2.8 Life history parameters obtained from otolith daily growth increment analyses……40
CHAPTER 3: RESULTS
3.1 Species identification for the glass eel recruiting to Hsiukuluan River, Eastern
Taiwan ………………………………………………………………………………...44
3.2 Species composition of the glass eel recruited to Hsiukuluan River………………...49
3.3 Stage composition of the glass eel recruited to Hsiukuluan River ……………….....52
3.4 Comparison of morphometric characters of glass eels among species……………....55
3.5 Daily growth increments and growth checks in the otoliths of glass eel of Anguilla
marmorata …………………………………………………………………………...62
3.6 Comparison of the developmental stage composition between Anguilla marmorata
and A. japonica glass eels…………………………………………………………....72
3.7 Differences in size and age at estuarine arrival between Anguilla marmorata and
A. japonica glass eels…………………………………………………………………76
3.8 The timing of metamorphosis from leptocephalus to glass eel as indicated by otolith
daily growth rates and Sr:Ca ratios………………………...........................................79
3.9 Back-calculated hatching dates of Anguilla marmorata and A. japonica…………...85
3.10 Age at metamorphosis in relation to the growth rate and distance from the spawning
grounds………………………………………………………………………………..87
3.11 Migratory environmental history and habitat use of Anguilla marmorata juveniles in
the Philippines as indicated by otolith Sr:Ca ratios………………………………...95
CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION
4.1 The differences in spatial recruitment patterns among species of glass eel in
Taiwan ………….........................................................................................................102
4.2 Differences in seasonal occurrence between Anguilla marmorata and A. japonica in
Taiwan………………………………………………………………………………106
4.3 The metamorphosis timing differs between Anguilla marmorata and A. japonica and
its ecological evolution significance………………………………………………...107
4.4 Delayed metamorphosis as a means of long-distance dispersal of the eel…………110
4.5 The early growth rate affects dispersal range of leptocephali ……………………..112
4.6 Spatial and temporal population genetic structure of the giant mottled eel Anguilla
marmorata in the northwestern Pacific……………………………………………..113
4.7 Migration behavior and habitat use of Anguilla marmorata in eastern Luzon,
Philippines………………………………………………………………………......115
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND PERSPECTIVE
5.1 Species-specific geographic distribution…………………………………………...118
5.2 Role of larval growth rate and metamorphosis timing in determining the geographical
distribution of the anguillid eel ……………………………………………………..118
5.3 Migratory environmental history of Anguilla marmorata is different from that of A.
japonica ……………………………………………………………………………..119
REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………………...121
APPENDICES…………………………………………………………………………………140
















LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1. Sampling information and sample sizes of the anguillid glass eel collected in the lower reach of Hsiukuluan River, eastern Taiwan……………………………………………….23

TABLE 2. Sampling information and sample sizes of A. japonica and A. marmorata glass eel collection in various rivers and estuaries in East Asia. Values inside the parentheses indicate the number of individuals used for otolith analyses…………………………………………………26

TABLE 3. Development of pigmentation in anguillid eels (Tesch2003)……………………….36

TABLE 4. Species composition of Anguilla glass eels collected in the lower reach of Hsiukuluan
River in Eastern Taiwan from 2005-2009……………………………………………………….50

TABLE 5. Pigmentation stages of the different Anguilla eel species collected from 2 stations in the lower reach of Hsiukuluan River…………………………………………………………….53

TABLE 6. Comparison of morphometric characters among the 4 Anguilla species……………59

TABLE 7. Sampling sites, sample sizes, sampling dates, total lengths, daily age of glass eels at the estuary (Tt), daily age at metamorphosis from leptocephalus to glass eel (Tm), and the time between the metamorphosis check and estuarine arrival (Tt-m) of Anguilla japonica and A. marmorata……………………………………………………………………………………….73

TABLE 8. Pigmentation stages of glass eels of Anguilla japonica and A. marmorata collected from various rivers and estuaries in East Asia…………………………………………………...75

TABLE 9. Mean (± SD) increment widths of otoliths radii Rm, Rt, and Rt-m in of Anguilla japonica and A. marmorata glass eels.…………………………………………………………..80

TABLE 10. Age and estimated hatch date of glass eels of Anguilla japonica and A. marmorata recruiting in East Asia……………………………………………………………………………86

TABLE 11. Sampling information of the adult eels collected from a river system in Aurora province, eastern Luzon, Philippines on August 6, 2012. ………………………………………95

TABLE 12. Sampling information of the adult eels collected from an aquaculture farm in Sanya, southern Hainan province, China………………………………………………………………...96










LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1. Life cycle and catadromous migration of anguillid eels…………………………….3

FIGURE 2. Recruitment (3 year running averages of geomeans of indices as % of 1979-1994 means) for the European (Moses-Saunders Index – 7 years), American (adjusted to year of arrival) and Japanese glass eels from Taiwan……………………………………………………..5

FIGURE 3. Population decline in Anguilla japonica (a; Tsukamoto et al. 2009) and A. marmorata (b; Prof. C.S. Tzeng, unpublished)…………………………………………………..8

FIGURE 4. Migration cycle of the northwestern Pacific population of Anguilla marmorata….12

FIGURE 5. Map showing the species range (thick black lines along the coasts) of Anguilla marmorata (a) and A. japonica (b) in East Asia and the geographic distribution of their larvae (data from Kuroki et al. 2006 and Tsukamoto 2009)……………………………………………13

FIGURE 6. The orientation of the semicircular canals and otoliths within the inner ear of teleost fish (a) and the transverse section of the inner ear showing the positions of each otoliths (b) (image modified from Panfili et al. 2002)……………………………………………………….16

FIGURE 7. Map showing glass eel sampling stations (1 and 2) in the lower reach of the Hsiukuluan River in eastern Taiwan……………………………………………………………..21

FIGURE 8. Fish way trap used to collect the migrating fish larvae in the lower reach of Hsiukuluan River (a) and the dimension of the tin trap (b)……………………………………...22

FIGURE 9. Map showing the geographic distributions of Anguilla japonica (thick gray lines on the coastlines) and A. marmorata (thick black lines on the coastlines) in East Asia and collection sites of samples analyzed in this study (&;#8710;, A. marmorata; Ο, A. japonica ; Cheng and Tzeng 1996)……………………………………………………………………………………………..25

FIGURE 10. Sampling location of the juvenile eels in a river system in Aurora province in eastern Luzon, Philippines……………………………………………………………………….27

FIGURE 11. Electro-fishing gear (a) used to collect juvenile eels in a river system (b) in Aurora province, eastern Luzon, Philippines…………………………………………………………….28

FIGURE 12. Schematic diagram of the methods used for anguillid glass eel species identification……………………………………………………………………………………..32

FIGURE 13. Diagram showing morphometric measurements of the glass eel…………………33

FIGURE 14a. Progressive sub-epidermal pigmentation in the anal region of the glass eel used to determine the different ontogenetic stages (after Strubberg, 1913; Bertin 1956; Tesch 2003)….34

FIGURE 14b. Developmental stages (VIA1 to VIB) in Japanese eels showing pigmentation process from glass eel to the fully pigmented elver stage at VIB. Arrows indicates the location of the unique pigmentation characteristic of each stage (adapted from Fukuda et al. 2013)……………………………………………………………………………………………..35

FIGURE 15. Diagram showing morphometric measurements of the adult eel…………………38

FIGURE 16. Schematic diagram of the measurements of radii and counts of the daily growth increments in the otoliths of the elvers (modified from Cheng and Tzeng 1996; Wang and Tzeng 2000)……………………………………………………………………………………………..43

FIGURE 17. Origins of the dorsal fin (black triangle) and anal fin (gray triangle) in longfin (a, A. japonica and b, A. marmorata, A. celebesensis and A. luzonensis) and shortfin (c, A. bicolor pacifica) glass eels………………………………………………………………………………46

FIGURE 18. Caudal in and tail bud pigmentation patterns of anguillid glass eels……………..47

FIGURE 19. Phylogenetic tree of the genus Anguilla inferred from cytochrome b sequences...48

FIGURE 20. Species composition of the recruiting glass eels collected in 2 stations at the lower reach of Hsiukuluan River, Eastern Taiwan from 2005-2009…………………………………...51

FIGURE 21. Developmental stage composition of recruiting glass eels according to sampling station…………………………………………………………………………………………….54
FIGURE 22. Length frequency distribution of glass eels of Anguilla japonica (a), A. bicolor pacifica (b), and A. marmorata (c) caught in the lower reach of Hsiukuluan River of Eastern Taiwan and A. celebesensis (d) (Tzeng 1982)…………………………………………………56

FIGURE 23. Relationship between pre-dorsal fin length and total length in the glass eels of Anguilla japonica, A. bicolor pacifica, A. marmorata and A. celebesensis (from Tzeng 1982)……………………………………………………………………………………………..60

FIGURE 24. Relationship between ano-dorsal fin length and total length in the glass eels of Anguilla japonica, A. bicolor pacifica, A. marmorata and A. celebesensis (from Tzeng 1982)...61

FIGURE 25. SEM photographs showing daily growth increments (DGIs) and growth checks in an otolith of an Anguilla marmorata elver………………………………………………………64

FIGURE 25a. Peripheral region of the Anguilla marmorata glass eel otolith showing the estuarine check (white arrow) and the otolith edge (black arrow)……………………………….65

FIGURE 25b. SEM photograph showing the metamorphosis check (black arrow) in the Anguilla marmorata glass eel otolith……………………………………………………………………...66

FIGURE 25c. SEM photograph showing the discontinuous (dark band, black arrow) and increment (light band, white arrow) zones in the Anguilla marmorata glass eel otolith………...67

FIGURE 25d. Core region of the of the Anguilla marmorata glass eel otolith showing the primordium (gray arrow), yolk-sac stage (red line), hatching check (white arrow) and the 1st feeding check (black arrow)……………………………………………………………………...68

FIGURE 26a. Core region of the A. marmorata glass eel otolith showing a distinct and well-defined primordium……………………………………………………………………………...69

FIGURE 26b. Core region of the A. marmorata glass eel otolith showing an undefined primordium………………………………………………………………………………………70

FIGURE 26c. Core region of the A. marmorata glass eel otolith showing twin primordia…………………………………………………………………………………………71

FIGURE 27. Developmental stage composition of recruiting Anguilla marmorata (a) and A. japonica glass eels……………………………………………………………………………….74

FIGURE 28. Length-frequency distribution of recruiting Anguilla marmorata glass eels from the Philippines, Taiwan, China and Japan……………………………………………………….77

FIGURE 29. Length-frequency distribution of recruiting Anguilla japonica glass eels from the Taiwan, China and Japan………………………………………………………………………...78

FIGURE 30. Profiles of otolith growth increment width (blank circle) and Sr:Ca concentration ratios measured using electron probe microanalyzer (solid diamond) from the primordium to the edge in A. marmorata glass eels…………………………………………………………………81

FIGURE 31. Otolith Sr:Ca profiles of the A. marmorata glass eels collected from the Philippines……………………………………………………………………………………….82

FIGURE 32. Otolith Sr:Ca profiles of the A. marmorata glass eels collected from Taiwan…...83

FIGURE 33. Otolith Sr:Ca profiles of the A. marmorata glass eels collected from Japan ….....84

FIGURE 34. Spatial changes in age at metamorphosis in A. marmorata (a) and A. japonica (b).............................................................................................................................................88

FIGURE 35. Spatial changes in age at recruitment in A. marmorata (a) and A. japonica (b)………………………………………………………………………………………………...89

FIGURE 36. Spatial changes in length at recruitment in A. marmorata (a) and A. japonica (b)………………………………………………………………………………………………...90

FIGURE 37. Spatial changes in time between metamorphosis and age at recruitment in A. marmorata (a) and A. japonica (b)………………………………………………………………91

FIGURE 38. Relationship between the age at metamorphosis (Tm) and growth rate (Gm) before metamorphosis in Anguilla marmorata………………………………………………………….92

FIGURE 39. Relationship between the age at metamorphosis (Tm) and growth rate (Gm) before metamorphosis in Anguilla japonica…………………………………………………………….93

FIGURE 40. Relationship between the larval dispersal distance and age at metamorphosis (Tm) in Anguilla marmorata (open symbols) and A. japonica (solid symbols)……………………….94

FIGURE 41. An otolith sample of a wild Anguilla marmorata (553.86 mm TL) from Aurora province, Philippines……………………………………………………………………………..97

FIGURE 42. An otolith sample of a cultured Anguilla marmorata (785 mm TL) from Hainan province, China…………………………………………………………………………………..98

FIGURE 43. Temporal changes in the otolith Sr:Ca ratios (measured from the core to the edge) of A. marmorata collected from the Philippines………………………………………………..100

FIGURE 44. Temporal changes in the otolith Sr:Ca ratios (measured from the core to the edge) of A. marmorata collected from an aquaculture farm in Sanya, southern Hainan Province,
China……………………………………………………………………………………………101

FIGURE 45. Distribution patterns and abundances of A. marmorata and other anguillid eels in Taiwan…………………………………………………………………………………………..105

FIGURE 46. Anguillid eel metamorphosis from leptocephalus to glass eel and some of the accompanying physiological changes…………………………………………………………..109
















LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX 1. Fisheries Administrative Order 242 of the Philippines………………………..140

APPENDIX 2. Papers, abstracts and presentations related to this dissertation………………..142

REFERENCES
Amiard-Triquet C, JC Amiard, AC Andersen, P Elie, C Metayer. 1988. The eel (Anguilla
anguilla) as a bioindicator of metal pollution: factor limiting its use. Water Science and
Technology 19: 1229-1232.
Aoyama J. 2009. Life history and evolution of migration in catadromous eels (genus
Anguilla). Aqua-BioScience Monographs 2: 1-42.
Arai T. 2002. Migratory history of fishes: present status and perspectives of the analytical
methods. Ichthyological Research 49: 1-23.
Arai T, T Otake, K Tsukamoto. 1997. Drastic changes in otolith microstructure and
microchemistry accompanying the onset of metamorphosis in Japanese eel Anguilla
japonica. Marine Ecology Progress Series 161: 17-22.
Arai T, D Limbong, T Otake, K Tsukamoto. 1999a. Metamorphosis timing and inshore
migration of tropical eels, Anguilla spp., in the Indo-Pacific. Marine Ecology Progress
Series 182: 283-293.
Arai T, T Otake, D Limbong, K Tsukamoto. 1999b. Early life history and recruitment of the
tropical eel, Anguilla bicolor pacifica, as revealed by otolith microstructure and
microchemistry. Marine Biology 133: 319-326.
Arai T, T Otake, DJ Jellyman, K Tsukamoto. 1999c. Differences in the early life history of the
Australian short finned eel Anguilla australis from Australia and New Zealand, as
revealed by otolith microstructure and microchemistry. Marine Biology 135: 381-389.
Arai T, J Aoyama, L Daniel, K Tsukamoto. 1999a. Species composition and inshore
migration of tropical eels, Anguilla spp., recruiting to the estuary of the Poigar River, Sulawesi Island. Marine Ecology Progress Series 188: 299-303.
Arai T, D Limbong, K. Tsukamoto. 2000. Validation of otolith daily growth increments in the
tropical eel Anguilla celebesensis. Canadian Journal of Zoology 78: 1078-1084.
Arai T, D Limbong, T Otake, K Tsukamoto. 2001a. Recruitment mechanisms of tropical eels
Anguilla spp. and implications for the evolution of oceanic migration in the genus
Anguilla. Marine Ecology Progress Series 216: 253-264.
Arai T, J Aoyama, S Ishikawa, MJ Miller, T Otake, T Inagaki, K Tsukamoto. 2001b. Early life
history of tropical Anguilla leptocephali in the western Pacific Ocean. Marine Biology
138: 887-895.
Arai T, M Marui, MJ Miller, K Tsukamoto. 2002a. Growth history and inshore migration of the
tropical eel, Anguilla marmorata, in the Pacific. Marine Biology 140: 309-316.
Arai T, M Marui, T Otake, K Tsukamoto. 2002b. Coastal migration of tropical eel, Anguilla
marmorata, from Taiwanese and Japanese coasts. Fisheries Science 68: 152-157.
Arai T, MJ Miller, K Tsukamoto. 2003. Larval duration of the tropical eel Anguilla
celebesensis from Indonesian and Philippine coasts. Marine Ecology Progress Series
251: 255-261.
Arai T, A Kotake, PM Lokinan, MJ Miller, K Tsukamoto. 2004. Evidence of different habitat
use by New Zealand freshwater eels Anguilla australis and A. dieffenbachi as revealed
by otolith microchemistry. Marine Ecology Progress Series 266: 213-225.
Arai T, A Kotake, TK McCarthy. 2006. Habitat use by the European eel Anguilla anguilla in
Irish waters. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 67: 569-578.
Arai T, N Chino, DQ Le. 2013. Migration and habitat use of the tropical eels A. marmorata and
A. bicolor pacifica in Vietnam. Aquatic Ecology 47: 57-65.
August SM, BJ Hicks. 2008. Water temperature and upstream migration of glass eels in New
Zealand: implications of climate change. Environmental Biology of Fishes 81: 195-205.
Bertin L. 1951. Les anguilles. Payot, Paris.
Bertin L. 1956. Eels- a biological study. Cleaver-Hume Press, London.
Bonhommeau S, E Chassot, B Planque, A Knap, O Le Pape. 2008. Impact of climate on eel
populations of Northern Hemisphere. Marine Ecology Progress Series 373: 71-80.
Briand C, D Fatin, G Fontenelle, E Feunteun. 2003. Estuarine and fluvial recruitment of the
European glass eel Anguilla anguilla in an exploited estuary. Fisheries Management and
Ecology 10: 377-384.
Briones AA, AV Yambot, JC Shiao, Y Iizuka, WN Tzeng. 2007. Migratory pattern and habitat
use of tropical eels Anguilla spp. (Teleostei: Anguilliformes: Anguillidae) in the
Philippines, as revealed by otolith microchemistry. The Raffles Bulletin of Zoology
Supplement No. 14: 141-149.
Busch WDN, SJ Lary, CM Castilione, RP McDonald. 1998. Distribution and availability of
Atlantic coast freshwater habitats for American eel (Anguilla rostrata). US Fish and
Wildlife Service, Administrative report, Amherst, New York, pp 92-98.
Campana SE. 1999. Chemistry and composition of fish otoliths: pathways, mechanisms and
applications. Marine Ecology Progress Series 188: 263-297.
Campana SE, GA Chouinard, M Hanson, A Frechet, J Brattey, 2000. Otolith elemental
fingerprints as biological tracers of fish stocks. Fisheries Research 46: 343-357.
Casselman JM. 2002. Effects of temperature, global extremes and climate change on year-class
production of warmwater, coolwater and coldwater fishes in the Great Lakes Basin. In
NA McGinn (ed) Proceedings of American Fisheries Society Symposium 32. American
Fisheries Society, Besthada, p 39.
Castle PHJ, GR Williamson. 1974. On the validity of freshwater eel species Anguilla ancestralis
Ege from Celebes. Copeia 2: 659-670.
Castonguay M, PV Hodson, C Moriarty, KF Drinkwater, B Jessop. 1994. Is there a role of
ocean environment in American and European eel decline? Fisheries Oceanography 3:
197-203.
Chang KC, YS Han, WN Tzeng. 2007. Population genetic structure among intra-annual arrival
waves of the Japanese eel Anguilla japonica in northern Taiwan. Zoological Studies 45:
583-590.
Chen RT, CF Tsai, WN Tzeng. 2009. 16S and 28S rDNA sequences in phylogenetic
analyses of freshwater prawns (Macrobrachium Bate, 1868) from Taiwan. Journal of Crustacean Biology 29: 400-412.
Cheng PW, WN Tzeng. 1996. Timing of metamorphosis and estuarine arrival across the
dispersal range of the Japanese eel Anguilla japonica. Marine Ecology Progress Series
131: 87-96.
Cheng YL, HY Chen, WN Tzeng. 1994. Reappraisal of the importance of rainfall in affecting
catches of Anguilla japonica elvers in Taiwan. Australian Journal of Marine and
Freshwater Research 45: 185-190.
Cheng CH, NJ Leander, KN Shen, WN Tzeng. 2012. Spatial and temporal population genetic
structure of the giant mottled eel Anguilla marmorata in the Northwestern Pacific.
Journal of the Fishery Society of Taiwan 39: 269-282.
Chino N, T Arai. 2009. Relative contribution of migratory type on the reproduction of migrating
silver eels, Anguilla japonica, collected off Shikoku Island, Japan. Marine Biology 156:
661-668.
Chino N, T Arai. 2010a. Migratory history of the giant mottled eel (Anguilla marmorata) in the
Bonin Islands of Japan. Ecology of Freshwater Fish 19: 19-25.
Chino N, T Arai. 2010b. Habitat use and habitat transitions in the tropical eel, Anguilla bicolor
bicolor. Environmental Biology of Fishes 89: 571-578.
Chisnall BL, ML Martin, BJ Hicks. 2003. Effect of harvest on size, abundance and production of
freshwater eels (Australis australis and A. dieffenbachii) in a New Zealand stream. In DA
Dixon (ed) Biology, management and protection of catadromous eels. American fisheries
Society, Besthada, pp 177-189.
Cieri MD, JD McCleave. 2001. Validation of daily otolith increments in glass-phase American
eels Anguilla rostrata during estuarine residency. Journal of Experimental Marine
Biology and Ecology 257: 219-227.
Clevestam PD, M Ogonowski, NB Sjoberg, H Wickstrom. 2011. Too short to spawn?
Implications of small body size and swimming distance on successful migration and
maturation of the European eel Anguilla anguilla. Journal of Fish Biology 78: 1073-
1089.
Daverat F, KE Limburg, I Thibault, JC Shiao, JJ Dodson, F Caron, WN Tzeng, Y Iizuka, H.
Wickstrom. 2006. Phenotypic plasticity of habitat use by three temperate eel species
Anguilla anguilla, A. japonica and A. rostrata. Marine Ecology Progress Series 308:
231-241.
Dekker W. 2003. Did lack of spawners cause the collapse of the European eel, Anguilla
anguilla? Fisheries Management and Ecology 10: 365-376.
Dekker W. 2008. Coming to grips with the eel stock slip-sliding away. In MG Schechter, NJ
Leonard, eds. International Governance of Fisheries Ecosystems: Learning from the
past, finding solutions for the future. Bethesda, Maryland: American Fisheries Society,
pp. 335-355.
Edeline E, S Dufour, P Elie. 2009. Proximate and ultimate control of eel continental dispersal.
In G van den Thillart, S Dufour, J Cliff Rankin, eds. Spawning migration of the
European eel. London: Springer, pp. 433-461.
Ege V. 1939. A revision of the genus Anguilla Shaw, a systematic, phylogenetic and
geographical study. Dana Report 16: 1-256.
Friedland KD, MJ Miller, B Knights. 2007. Oceanic changes in the Sargasso Sea and declines
in the recruitment of European eel. ICES Journal of Marine Science 64: 519-530.
Fukuda N. 2010. Inshore and upstream migration of Japanese eels in the Hamana Lake System,
PhD thesis. University of Tokyo, Japan.
Graynoth E, D Jellyman, M Bonnett. 2008. Spawning escapement of female longfin eels.
Ministry of Fisheries, New Zealand Fisheries Assessment Report 2008/7, Wellington.
Haenen O, V van Ginneken, M Engelsma, G van den Thillart. 2002. Impact of eel viruses on
recruitment of European eel. In G van den Thillart, S Dufour, J Cliff Rankin, eds.
Spawning migration of the European eel. London: Springer, pp. 387-400.
Han YS. 2010. The eel resource management. In International Symposium on Eel
Culture and Trade. Nueva Ecija, the Philippines.
Han YS, CW Chang, JT He, WN Tzeng. 2001. Validation of the occurrence of short-finned eel
Anguilla bicolor pacifica in natural waters of Taiwan. Acta Zoologica Taiwanica 12: 9-
19.
Han YS, CH Yu, HT Yu, CW Chang, IC Liao, WN Tzeng. 2002. The exotic American eel in
Taiwan: ecological implications. Journal of Fish Biology 60: 1608-1612.
Han YS, YT Chang, H Taraschewski, SL Chang, CC Chen, WN Tzeng. 2008. The swimbladder
parasite Anguillicola crassus in native Japanese eels and exotic American eels in Taiwan.
Zoological Studies 47: 667-675.
Han YS, WN Tzeng. 2006. Use of sex ratio as a means of resource assessment for the Japanese
eel Anguilla japonica: a case study in the Kaoping River, Taiwan. Zoological Studies 45:
255-263.
Han YS, YT Chang, WN Tzeng. 2009a. Variable habitat use by Japanese eel affects
dissemination of swimbladder parasite Anguillicola crassus. Aquatic Biology 5: 143-147.
Han YS, WN Tzeng, IC Liao. 2009b. Time series analysis of Taiwanese catch data of Japanese
glass eels Anguilla japonica: possible effects of the reproductive cycle and El Nino
events. Zoological Studies 48: 632-639.
Han YS, CL Hung, YF Liao, WN Tzeng. 2010. Population genetic structure of the Japanese eel
Anguilla japonica: panmixia at spatial and temporal scales. Marine Ecology Progress
Series 401: 221-232.
Han YS, AV Yambot, H Zhang, CL Hung. 2012. Sympatric spawning but allopatric distribution
of Anguilla japonica and Anguilla marmorata: temperature- and oceanic current-dependent sieving. Plos ONE 7: e37484. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0037484.
Haro A, W Richkus, K Whalen, A Hoar, WD Busch, S Lary, T Brush, D Dixon. 2000.
Populations decline of the American eel: implications for future research and management. Fisheries 25: 7-16.
Hoyle SD, DJ Jellyman. 2002. Longfin eels need reserves: modeling the effects of commercial
harvest on stocks of New Zealand eels. Marine and Freshwater Research 53: 887-895.
Ishikawa S. 1998. Molecular study on the population structure of Anguilla marmorata. PhD
thesis, University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
Ishikawa S, K. Tsukamoto, M. Nishida. 2004. Genetic evidence for multiple
geographic populations of the giant mottled eel Anguilla marmorata in
the Pacific and Indian oceans. Ichthyological Research 51: 343-353.
IUCN. 2014. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (ver. 2014.1). www.iucnredlist.org.
Jansen HM, HV Winter, MC Bruijs, HJG Polman. 2007. Just go with the flow? Route selection
and mortality during downstream migration of silver eels in relation to river discharge.
ICES Journal of Marine Science 64: 1437-1443.
Jellyman DJ. 1987. Review of the marine life history of Australasian temperate
species of Anguilla. American Fisheries Society Symposium. 1: 276-285.
Jellyman DJ, E Graynorth, RICC Francis, BL Chisnall, MP Beentjes. 2000. A
review of the evidence for a decline in the abundance of longfinned
eels (Anguilla dieffenbachi) in New Zealand. Final Research Report,
Ministry of Fisheries Research Project EEL9802.
Kim H, S Kimura, A Shinoda, T Kitagawa, Y Sasai, H Sasaki. 2007. Effect of El Nino on
migration and larval transport of the Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica). ICES Journal of
Marine Science 64: 1387-1395.
Kimura S, T. Inoue, T. Sugimoto. 2001. Fluctuation in the distribution of low-salinity water in
the North Equatorial Current and its effect on the larval transport of the Japanese eel.
Fisheries Oceanography 10: 51-60.
Kirk RS. 2003. The impact of Anguillicola crassus on European eels. Fisheries Management
and Ecology 10: 385-394.
Knights B. 2003. A review of the possible impacts of long-term oceanic and climate changes
and fishing mortality on recruitment of anguillid eels of the Northern Hemisphere.
Science of the Total Environment 310: 237-244.
Kotake A, T Arai, T Ozawa, S Nojima, MJ Miller, K Tsukamoto. 2003. Variation in migratory
history of Japanese eels, Anguilla japonica, collected in coastal waters of the Amakusa
Islands, Japan, inferred from otolith Sr:Ca ratios. Marine Biology 142: 849-854.
Kuroki M, J Aoyama, MJ Miller, T Arai, HY Sugeha, G Minagawa, S Wouthuyzen, K
Tsukamoto. 2005. Correspondence between otolith microstructural changes and early
life history events in Anguilla marmorata leptocephali and glass eels. Coastal Marine
Science 29: 154-161.
Kuroki M, J Aoyama, MJ Miller, S Wouthuyen, T Arai, K Tsukamoto. 2006. Contrasting patterns
of growth and migration of tropical anguillid leptocephali in the western Pacific and
Indonesian Seas. Marine Ecology Progress Series 309: 233-246.
Kuroki M, J Aoyama, MJ Miller, T Yoshinaga, A Shinoda, S Hagihara, K Tsukamoto. 2009.
Sympatric spawning of Anguilla marmorata and Anguilla japonica in the western North
Pacific Ocean. Journal of Fish Biology 74: 1853-1865.
Leander NJ, KN Shen, RT Chen, WN Tzeng. 2012. Species composition and seasonal
occurrence of recruiting glass eels (Anguilla spp.) in Hsiukuluan River, Eastern Taiwan. Zoological Studies 51: 59-71.
Liao IC, SG Liao, WN Tzeng, CL Kuo. 1999. Investigation of leptocephalus by R/V Taiwan
Fisheries Institute no. 1. Kaiyo Publisher, Tokyo, Kaiyo Monthly Special 18: 27-33.
Lin MH. 2001. Population dynamic of upstream migration in summer of Anguilla
marmorata in Hsiukuluan River. Master’s thesis, National Tsing Hua Univ., Hsinchu, Taiwan.
Lin YJ, Y Iizuka, WN Tzeng. 2009. Potential contributions by escaped cultured eels to the wild
population of Japanese eel Anguilla japonica in the Kao-ping River. Journal of the
Fisheries Society of Taiwan 36: 179-189.
Lin YJ, WN Tzeng. 2008. Effect of shrimp net and cultured eels on the wild population of
Japanese eel Anguilla japonica in the Kao-ping River, Taiwan. Journal of the Fisheries
Society of Taiwan 35: 61-37.
Lue X, S Fang, Y Zhang. 1999. Species and morphometric characters of upstream
migrating elvers in Jiulongjiang Estuary. Journal of the Oceanography of Taiwan Strait. 18: 191-194. (in Chinese with English abstract).
Lukas R, E Firing, P Hacker, PL Richardson, CA Collins, R Fine, R Gammon. 1991.
Observations of the Mindanao Current during the Western Equatorial Pacific Ocean
circulation study. Journal of Geophysical Research 96: 7089-7104.
Martin MH. 1995. Validation of daily growth increments in otoliths of Anguilla rostrata (Le
Sueur) elvers. Canadian Journal of Zoology 73: 208-211.
Marui M, T Arai, MJ Miller, DJ Jellyman, K Tsukamoto. 2001. Comparison of early life history
between New Zealand temperate eels and Pacific tropical eels revealed by otolith
microstructure and microchemistry. Marine Ecology Progress Series 213: 273-284.
McCleave JD, RC Kleckner. 1987. Distribution of leptocephali of the catadromous Anguilla
species in the western Sargasso Sea in relation to water circulation and migration.
Bulletin of Marine Science 41: 789-806.
McCleave JD, RC Kleckner, M Costonguay. 1987. Reproductive sympatry of American and
European eels and implications for migration and taxonomy. American Fisheries Society
Symposium 1: 286-297.
McCleave JD. 1993. Physical and behavioral controls on the oceanic distribution and migration
of leptocephali. Journal of Fish Biology 42: 243-273.
McCleave JD. 2001. Simulation of the impact of dams and fishing weirs on reproductive
potential of silver-phase American eels in the Kennebec River Basin, Maine. North
American Journal of Fishery Management 21: 592-605.
Miller MJ, N Mochioka, T Otake, K Tsukamoto. 2002. Evidence of a spawning area of
Anguilla marmorata in the western North Pacific. Marine Biology 140: 809-814.
Miller MJ. 2009. Ecology of anguilliform leptocephali; remarkable transparent fish larvae of
the ocean surface layer. Aqua-BioScience Monographs 2: 1-94.
Miller MJ, J Aoyama, K Tsukamoto. 2009. New perspectives on the early life history of
tropical anguillid eels: implications for resource management. In JM Casselman, DK
Cairns, eds. Eels at the edge: science, status and conservation concerns. American
Fisheries Society, pp. 71-84.
Miller MJ, S Kimura, KD Friedland, B Knights, H Kim, DJ Jellyman, K Tsukamoto. 2009.
Review of ocean-atmospheric factors in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans influencing
spawning and recruitment of anguillid eels. American Fishery Society Symposium 69:
231-249.
Minegishi Y, J Aoyama, K Tsukamoto. 2008. Multiple population structure of the giant mottled
eel, Anguilla marmorata. Molecular Ecology 17: 3109-3122.
Minegishi Y, J Aoyama, JG Inoue, RV Azanza, K Tsukamoto. 2009. Inter-species and subspecific
genetic divergences of freshwater eels, genus Anguilla including a recently described
species, A. luzonensis, based on whole mitochondrial genome sequences. Coastal Marine
Science 33: 64-77.
Moran RA. 1994. Adaptation and constraint in the complex life-cycles of animals. Annual
Review of Ecological Systems 25: 573-600.
Moriarty C, W Dekker. 1997. Management of the European eel Anguilla anguilla. Fishery
Bulletin 15: 1-110.
Nitani H. 1972. Beginning of the Kuroshio. In H Stommel, K Yashida (eds). Kuroshio: Its
physical aspects. University of Tokyo Press, pp 129-163.
Otake T. 2003. Metamorphosis. In K Aida, K Tsukamoto, K. Yamauchi, eds. Eel Biology.
Tokyo: Springer, pp. 61-74.
Otake T, T Ishii, M Nakahara, R Nakamura. 1994. Drastic changes in otolith strontium/calcium
ratios in leptocephali and glass eels of Japanese eel Anguilla japonica. Marine Ecology
Progress Series 112: 189-193.
Otake T, T Ishii, M Nakahara, R Nakamura. 1997. Changes in otolith strontium:calcium ratios
in metamorphosing Conger myriaster leptocephali. Marine Biology 128: 565-572.
Ozawa T, O Tabeta, N Mochioka. 1989. Anguillid leptocephali from the western North Pacific
east of Luzon, in 1988. Nippon Suisan Gakkaishi 55: 627-632.
Palstra AP, DFM Heppener, VJT van Ginneken, C Szekely, G van den Thillart. 2006. Are dioxin-
like contaminants responsible for the eel (Anguilla anguilla) drama? Naturwissenschaften
93: 145-148.
Panella G. 1980. Growth patterns in fish sagittae. In DC Rhoads, RA Lutz, eds. Skeletal growth
of aquatic organisms. Plenum Press, New York, pp. 519-560.
Parker D, OLF Weyl, H Tarachewski. 2011. Invasion of a South African Anguilla mossambica
(Anguillidae) population by the alien gill worm Pseudodactylogyrus anguillae
(Monogenea). African Zoology 46: 371-377.
Richkus WA, K Whalen. 2000. Evidence for a decline in the abundance of the American eel,
Anguilla rostrata (LeSueur), in North America since the early 1980s. Dana Report 12:
83-97.
Robinet T, E Feunteun. 2002. Sublethal effects of exposure to chemical compounds: a cause for
the decline in Atlantic eels? Ecotoxicology 11: 265-277.
Sasal P, H Tarachewski, P Valade, H Grondin, S Wielgoss, F Moravec. 2008. Parasite communities in the eels of the island of Reunion (Indian Ocean): a lesson in parasite introduction. Parasitology Research 102: 1343-1350.
Shen KN, WN Tzeng. 2007a. Genetic differentiation among populations of the shortfinned eel
Anguilla australis from East Australia and New Zealand. Journal of Fish Biology 70:
177-190.
Shen, K. N. and W. N. Tzeng 2007b. Population genetic structure of the year-round spawning
tropical eel Anguilla reinhardtii in Australia. Zoological Studies 46 (4): 331-453.
Shiao JC, WN Tzeng, A Collins, DJ Jellyman. 2001. Dispersal pattern of glass eel stage of
Anguilla australis revealed by otolith growth increments. Marine Ecology Progress
Series 219: 241-250.
Shiao JC, Y Iizuka, CW Chang, WN Tzeng. 2003. Disparities in habitat use and migratory
behavior between tropical eel Anguilla marmorata and temperate eel A. japonica in four
Taiwanese rivers. Marine Ecology Progress Series 261: 233-242.
Strubberg AC. 1913. The metamorphosis of elver as influenced by outward conditions.
Meddelelser fra Kommissionen for Havunderseger Series Fiskeri, pp. 4-11.
Sugeha HY, T Arai, MJ Miller, D Limbong, K Tsukamoto. 2001a. Inshore migration of the
tropical eels Anguilla spp. recruiting to the Poigar River estuary on north Sulawesi
Island. Marine Ecology Progress Series 221: 233-243.
Sugeha HY, A Shinoda, M Marui, T Arai, K Tsukamoto. 2001b. Validation of otolith daily
increments in the tropical eel Anguilla marmorata. Marine Ecology Progress Series 220:
291-294.
Sugimoto T, S Kimira, K Tadokoro. 2001. Impact of El Nino events and climate regime shift on
living resources in the western North Pacific. Progress in Oceanography 49: 113-127.
Sures B, K Knopf. 2004. Parasites as a threat to freshwater eels? Science 304: 209-211.
Szekely C, A Palstra, K Molnar, G van den Thillart. 2002. Impact of the swim-bladder parasite
on the health and performance of European eels. In G van den Thillart, S Dufour, J Cliff
Rankin, eds. Spawning migration of the European eel. London: Springer, pp. 201-226.
Tabeta O, N Mochioka. 2003. The glass eel. In K Aida, K Tsukamoto, K Yamauchi (eds). Eel
Biology. Springer, Tokyo, pp 201-226.
Tabeta O, T Takai, I Matsui. 1975. Record of the Japanese eel from the Philippines. Bulletin of
the Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries 41: 641-644.
Tabeta O, T Tanimoto, T Takai, I Matsui, T Imamura. 1976. Seasonal occurrence of anguillid
elvers in Cagayan River, Luzon Island, the Philippines. Bulletin of the Japanese Society
of Scientific Fisheries 42: 421-426.
Tabeta O, K Tanaka, J Yamada, WN Tzeng. 1987. Aspects of the early life history of the
Japanese eel Anguilla japonica determined from otolith microstructure. Bulletin of the
Japanese Society of Scientific Fisheries 53: 1727-1734.
Tanaka H, H Kagawa, H Ohta, K Okuzawa, K Hirose. 1995. The first report of eel larvae
ingesting rotifers. Fisheries Science 61: 171-172.
Tatsukawa K. 2003. Eel resources in East Asia. In K Aida, K Tsukamoto, K. Yamauchi, eds.
Eel Biology. Tokyo: Springer, pp. 293-300.
Teng HY, YS Lin, CS Tzeng. 2009. A new Anguilla species and a reanalysis of the phylogeny
of freshwater eels. Zoological Studies 48: 808-822.
Tesch FW. 1977. The eel: biology and management of anguillid eels. London: Chapman and
Hall.
Tesch FW. 2003. The eel, 3rd ed. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science.
Tseng MC, SC Lee, WN Tzeng, 2001. Genetic variation of the Japanese eel Anguilla japonica
based on microsatellite DNA. Journal of Taiwan Fisheries Research 9: 137-147.
Tseng MC, WN Tzeng, SC Lee. 2003. Historical decline in the Japanese eel Anguilla japonica
in Northern Taiwan inferred from temporal genetic variations. Zoological Studies 42(4):
556-563.
Tseng MC, WN Tzeng, SC Lee. 2006. Population genetic structure of the Japanese eel Anguilla
japonica in the northwest Pacific Ocean: evidence of non-panmictic populations. Marine
Ecology Progress Series 308: 221-230.
Tsukamoto K. 1990. Recruitment mechanism of the eel, Anguilla japonica, to the Japanese
coast. Journal of Fish Biology 36: 659-671.
Tsukamoto K, Y Yamada, A Okamura, T Kaneko, H Tanaka, MJ Miller, N Horie, N Mikawa, T
Utoh, S Tanaka. 2009. Positive buoyancy in eel leptocephali: an adaptation for life in
the ocean surface layer. Marine Biology 156: 835-846.
Tsukamoto K, S Chow, T Otake, H Kurogi, N Mochioka, MJ Miller, J Aoyama, S Kimura, S
Watanabe, T Yoshinaga, A Shinoda, M Kuroki, M Oya, T Watanabe, K Hata, S Ijiri, Y
Kazeto, K Nomura, H Tanaka. 2011. Oceanic spawning ecology of freshwater eels in
the western North Pacific. Nature Communications 2: 179.
Tzeng WN. 1982. New record of the elver, Anguilla celebesensis Kaup, from Taiwan. Chinese
Bioscience 19: 57-66. (in Chinese with English abstract).
Tzeng WN. 1983a. Species identification and commercial catch of the anguillid elvers from
Taiwan. China Fishery Monthly 366: 16-23. (in Chinese with English abstract)
Tzeng WN. 1983b. Seasonal and long-term changes of the catch of anguillid elvers in Taiwan.
Journal of the Fishery Society of Taiwan 10: 1-7 (in Chinese with English abstract)
Tzeng WN. 1984a. Dispersion and upstream migration of marked anguillid eel, Anguilla
japonica elvers in the estuary of Shuang-Chi River, Taiwan. Bulletin of the Japanese
Society of Fisheries Oceanography 45: 10-20.
Tzeng WN. 1984b. An estimate of the exploitation rate of Anguilla japonica elvers immigrating
into the coastal waters of Shuang-Chi River, Taiwan. Bulletin of the Institute of Zoology
Academia Sinica 23: 173-180.
Tzeng WN. 1985. Immigration timing and activity rhythms of the eel Anguilla japonica elvers
in the estuary of northern Taiwan, with emphasis on environmental influences. Bulletin
of the Japanese Society of Fisheries Oceanography 47-48: 11-28.
Tzeng WN. 1990. Relationship between growth rate and age at recruitment of Anguilla
japonica elvers in a Taiwan estuary as inferred from otolith growth increments. Marine
Biology 107: 75-81.
Tzeng WN. 1995. Migratory history recorded in otoliths of the Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica,
elvers as revealed from SEM and WDS analysis. Zoological Studies 34 (Supplement 1):
234-236.
Tzeng WN. 1996. Effects of salinity and ontogenetic movements on strontium: calcium ratios
in the otoliths of the Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica Temminck and Schlegel. Journal of
Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 199: 111-122.
Tzeng WN. 1996. Short-and long-term fluctuations in catches of elvers of the
Japanese eel Anguilla japonica in Taiwan. In DA Hancock, DC Smith, A Grant, JP Beumer, eds. Developing and sustaining world fisheries resources: the state of science and management. Second World Fisheries Congress Proceedings. Victoria, Australia: CSIRO, pp. 85-89.
Tzeng WN. 2003. The processes of inshore migration of the Japanese eel Anguilla japonica as
revealed by otolith microstructure. In K Aida, K Tsukamoto, K Yamauchi, eds. Eel
Biology. Tokyo: Springer, pp. 181-190.
Tzeng WN. 2006. Surface water temperature as a potential cause of delayed arrival
of the Japanese eel Anguilla japonica elvers on the coast of Taiwan. Journal of the Fishery Society of Taiwan 33: 115-126.
Tzeng WN, CW Chang. 2001. Stock status and management prospect of the freshwater eel
Anguilla spp. in Taiwan. Journal of Taiwan Fishery Research 9: 251-258.
Tzeng WN, PW Cheng, FY Lin. 1995. Relative abundance, sex ratio and population structure
of the Japanese eel Anguilla japonica in the Tanshui River system of northern Taiwan.
Journal of Fish Biology 46: 183-201.
Tzeng WN, O Tabeta. 1983. First record of the short-finned eel Anguilla bicolor pacifica elvers
from Taiwan. Bulletin of the Japanese Society of Fisheries Oceanography 49: 27-32.
Tzeng WN, YC Tsai. 1992. Otolith microstructure and daily age of Anguilla japonica
Temminck and Schlegel elvers from the estuaries of Taiwan with reference to unit stock
and larval migration. Journal of Fish Biology 40: 845-857.
Tzeng WN, YC Tsai. 1994. Changes in otolith microchemistry of the Japanese eel, Anguilla
japonica, during its migration from the ocean to the rivers of Taiwan. Journal of Fish
Biology 45: 671-684.
Tzeng WN, JC Shiao, Y Iizuka. 2002. Use of otolith Sr:Ca ratios to study the riverine migratory
behaviours of Japanese eel Anguilla japonica. Marine Ecology Progress Series 245: 213-
221.
Tzeng WN, YH Tseng, YS Han, CC Hsu, CW Chang, E Di Lorenzo, CH Hsieh. 2012.
Evaluation of multi-scale climate effects on annual recruitment levels of the Japanese eel,
Anguilla japonica, to Taiwan. PLOS ONE 7:e30805.
Umezawa A, K Tsukamoto, O Tabeta, H Yamakawa. 1989. Daily growth increments in the
larval otolith of the Japanese eel, Anguilla japonica. Ichthyological Research 35: 440-
444.
van Ginneken V, B Ballieux, R Willemze, K Coldenhoff, E Lentjes, E Antonnissen, O Haenen, G
van den Thillart. 2005. Hematology patterns of migrating European eels and the role of
EVEX virus. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C 140: 97-102.
van Ginneken V, M Bruijs, T Murk, A Palstra, G van den Thillart. 2009. The effects of PCBs on
the spawning migration of the European silver eel. In G van den Thillart, S Dufour, J
Cliff Rankin, eds. Spawning migration of the European eel. London: Springer, pp. 365-
386.
Verreault G, P Dumont, Y Mailhot. 2004. Habitat losses and anthropogenic barriers as a cause of
population decline for American eel (Anguilla rostrata) in St. Lawrence watershed,
Canada. In 2004 ICES Annual Science Conference, Vigo, 22-25 Spetember 2004. ICES,
Copenhagen.
Wang CH, WN Tzeng. 1998. Interpretation of geographic variation in size of American eel,
Anguilla rostrata (Le Sueur), elvers on the Atlantic coast of North America by their life
history and otolith ageing. Marine Ecology Progress Series 168: 35-43.
Wang CH, WN Tzeng. 2000. The timing and growth rates of American and European eel
leptocephali: a mechanism of larval segregative migration. Fisheries Research 46: 191-
205.
Watanabe S, J Aoyama, MJ Miller, S Ishikawa, E Feunteun, K Tsukamoto. 2008. Evidence of
population structure in the giant mottled eel, Anguilla marmorata, using total number of
vertebrae. Copeia 2008: 680-688.
Watanabe S, J Aoyama, K Tsukamoto. 2009. A new species of freshwater eel Anguilla
luzonensis (Teleostei: Anguillidae) from Luzon Island of the Philippines. Fisheries
Science 75: 387-392.
Watanabe S, MJ Miller, J Aoyama, K. Tsukamoto. 2009. Morphological and meristic evaluation
of the population structure of Anguilla marmorata across its range. Journal of Fish
Biology 74: 2069-2093.
Zenimoto K, T Kitagawa, S Miyazaki, Y Sasai, S Kimura. 2009. The effects of seasonal and
interannual variability of oceanic structure in the western Pacific North Equatorial
Current on larval transport of the Japanese eel Anguilla japonica. Journal of Fish Biol.
74: 1878-1890.