臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

草本植物或食物營養因子介入以促進肌肉肥大或蛋白質合成作用，是增加骨骼肌肉量的重要探討方向。本研究以黃耆萃取物為試驗物，以骨骼肌肉細胞 C2C12 細胞株培育為成熟的肌小管後作為實驗平台，觀察培養液中添加黃耆水萃物粉末後是否可促進肌小管肥大及其可能機制，並以動物試驗評估食用黃耆濃縮製劑之安全性後，探討黃耆濃縮製劑粉末補充對於人體運動損傷後的生理恢復情形。研究結果發現含有黃耆水萃物之培養液可經由 PI3K / Akt / mTOR pathway 促進肌小管肥大。運動訓練之 ICR 小鼠每日每公斤體重補充 0.615 或 3.075 g 黃耆濃縮製劑粉末連續 6 週並不會對小鼠的代謝性生化指標及相關組織產生毒害影響。人體運動損傷後每日補充 2.8 g 黃耆濃縮製劑 (黃耆濃縮製劑中之 astragalosides總含量為1.455 mg / g) 可提升人體血液中 insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) 濃度，且可增加肌肉組織的血含氧量。根據本研究結果，黃耆萃取物是具有促進肌肉肥大的候選草本食材，未來可能作為促進運動表現的營養增補劑。

Herbal supplements and food factors are important resources to investigate about muscle hypertrophy or protein synthesis. We investigated Astragalus membranaceus (AM) whether those herbal supplements induce hypertrophy in myotubes through the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/Akt (also termed PKB)/mammalian target of the rapamycin (mTOR) pathway. Then, we study the safety assessment and exercise ability of AM supplements which can promote skeletal muscle hypertrophy. The results revealed that AM can promote hypertrophy in myotubes through the PI3K/Akt/mTOR pathway. Biochemical parameters and histopathological examination revealed no toxic effect of 6-week AM (0.615 and 3.075 g / kg B.W. / day) administration in training ICR mice. Furthermore, AM supplement (2.8 g / day, contain total astragalosides 1.455 mg / g ) can enhance serum insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) concentrations and increase the oxygen content of muscle tissue in human. According to our study, we suggest that AM may be used as a candidate nutritional supplement to promote athletic performance.

審查委員通過簽名單..............................................................................I
電子暨紙本學位論文書目同意公開授權書.............................................II
學位考試保密同意書暨簽到表...............................................................III
中文摘要...............................................................................................V
英文摘要...............................................................................................VI
致謝......................................................................................................VII
目錄.......................................................................................................IX
圖目次...................................................................................................XI
表目次...................................................................................................XII
中英名詞暨英文縮寫對照表...................................................................XIII
第一章 緒論...........................................................................................1
第二章 文獻探討....................................................................................3
第一節 肌肉的生長................................................................................3
第二節 黃耆的簡介................................................................................17
第三章 研究目的...................................................................................19
第四章 黃耆水萃物對肌小管肥大的影響及肥大機轉探討......................20
第一節 黃耆水萃物對肌小管的存活率...................................................20
第二節 黃耆水萃物對肌小管肥厚度的影響............................................25
第三節 黃耆水萃物對肌小管肥大路徑的探討........................................29
第四節 討論...........................................................................................38
第五節 結論...........................................................................................42
第五章 黃耆濃縮製劑對運動訓練鼠的安全性評估.................................43
第一節 實驗目的...................................................................................43
第二節 材料與方法................................................................................43
第三節 結果與討論................................................................................47
第四節 結論...........................................................................................54
第六章 運動損傷後補充黃耆濃縮製劑對人體的生理和生化指標影響... 55
第一節 實驗目的...................................................................................55
第二節 材料與方法...............................................................................55
第三節 結果..........................................................................................60
第四節 討論..........................................................................................66
第五節 結論..........................................................................................68
第七章 綜合討論...................................................................................69
第八章 總結..........................................................................................72
參考文獻...............................................................................................73
附錄一 動物實驗審查同意書.................................................................84
附錄二 人體試驗審查通過證明函..........................................................85
附錄三 本研究計畫已發表論文列表......................................................86

Adams GR, Caiozzo VJ, Haddad F, Baldwin KM. Cellular and molecular
responses to increased skeletal muscle loading after irradiation. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol.
2002, 283: C1182-C1195.
Agyemang K, Han L, Liu E, Zhang Y, Wang T, Gao X. Recent Advances in Astragalus membranaceus Anti-Diabetic Research: Pharmacological Effects of Its Phytochemical Constituents. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2013, 2013: 654643.
Alway SE, Gonyea WJ, Davis ME. Muscle fiber formation and fiber hypertrophy during the onset of stretch-overload. Am J Physiol. 1990, 259: C92-C102.
Baillie JK, Bates MG, Thompson AA, Waring WS, Partridge RW, Schnopp MF, Simpson A, Gulliver-Sloan F, Maxwell SR, Webb DJ. Endogenous urate production augments plasma antioxidant capacity in healthy lowland subjects exposed to high altitude. Chest. 2007, 131: 1473-1478.
Bamman MM, Shipp JR, Jiang J, Gower BA, Hunter GR, Goodman A, McLafferty CL Jr, Urban RJ. Mechanical load increases muscle IGF-I and androgen receptor mRNA concentrations in humans. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2001, 280: E383-E390.
Basualto-Alarcón C, Jorquera G, Altamirano F, Jaimovich E, Estrada M. Testosterone signals through mTOR and androgen receptor to induce muscle hypertrophy. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013, 45: 1712-1720.
Baumann G. Growth hormone heterogeneity: genes, isohormones, variants, and binding proteins. Endocr Rev. 1991, 12: 424-449.
Baumgartner RN, Koehler KM, Gallagher D, Romero L, Heymsfield SB, Ross RR, Garry PJ, Lindeman RD. Epidemiology of sarcopenia among the elderly in New Mexico. Am J Epidemiol. 1998, 147: 755-763.
Blomstrand E, Eliasson J, Karlsson HK, Köhnke R. Branched-chain amino acids activate key enzymes in protein synthesis after physical exercise. J Nutr. 2006, 136: 269S-273S.
Bloomer RJ, Sforzo GA, Keller BA. Effects of meal form and composition on plasma testosterone, cortisol, and insulin following resistance exercise. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab. 2000, 10: 415-424.
Bodine SC, Stitt TN, Gonzalez M, Kline WO, Stover GL, Bauerlein R, Zlotchenko E, Scrimgeour A, Lawrence JC, Glass DJ, Yancopoulos GD. Akt/mTOR pathway is a crucial regulator of skeletal muscle hypertrophy and can prevent muscle atrophy in vivo. Nat Cell Biol. 2001, 3: 1014-1019.
Bolster DR, Crozier SJ, Kimball SR, Jefferson LS. AMP-activated protein kinase suppresses protein synthesis in rat skeletal muscle through down-regulated mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling. J Biol Chem. 2002, 277: 23977-23980.
Bush JA, Kimball SR, O''Connor PM, Suryawan A, Orellana RA, Nguyen HV, Jefferson LS, Davis TA. Translational control of protein synthesis in muscle and liver of growth hormone-treated pigs. Endocrinology. 2003, 144: 1273-1283.
Chalé A, Cloutier GJ, Hau C, Phillips EM, Dallal GE, Fielding RA. Efficacy of whey protein supplementation on resistance exercise-induced changes in lean mass, muscle strength, and physical function in mobility-limited older adults. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2013, 68: 682-690.
Chandler RM, Byrne HK, Patterson JG, Ivy JL. Dietary supplements affect the anabolic hormones after weight-training exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1994, 76: 839-845.
Chen P, Xie Y, Shen E, Li GG, Yu Y, Zhang CB, Yang Y, Zou Y, Ge J, Chen R, Chen H. Astragaloside IV attenuates myocardial fibrosis by inhibiting TGF-β1 signaling in coxsackievirus B3-induced cardiomyopathy. Eur J Pharmacol. 2011, 658: 168-174.
Chen WC, Huang WC, Chiu CC, Chang YK, Huang CC. Whey Protein Improves Exercise Performance and Biochemical Profiles in Trained Mice. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2014. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000000272.
Chiang GG, Abraham RT. Phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) at Ser-2448 is mediated by p70S6 kinase. J Biol Chem. 2005, 280: 25485-25490.
Coffey VG, Zhong Z, Shield A, Canny BJ, Chibalin AV, Zierath JR, Hawley JA. Early signaling responses to divergent exercise stimuli in skeletal muscle from well-trained humans. FASEB J. 2006, 20: 190-192.
Del Aguila LF, Krishnan RK, Ulbrecht JS, Farrell PA, Correll PH, Lang CH, Zierath JR, Kirwan JP. Muscle damage impairs insulin stimulation of IRS-1, PI 3-kinase, and Akt-kinase in human skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2000, 279: E206-E212.
Dennis PB, Jaeschke A, Saitoh M, Fowler B, Kozma SC, Thomas G. Mammalian TOR: a homeostatic ATP sensor. Science. 2001, 294: 1102-1105.
Dreyer HC, Fujita S, Cadenas JG, Chinkes DL, Volpi E, Rasmussen BB. Resistance exercise increases AMPK activity and reduces 4E-BP1 phosphorylation and protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle. J Physiol. 2006, 576: 613-624.
Eguchi T, Kumagai C, Fujihara T, Takemasa T, Ozawa T, Numata O. Black tea high-molecular-weight polyphenol stimulates exercise training-induced improvement of endurance capacity in mouse via the link between AMPK and GLUT4. PLoS One. 2013, 8: e69480.
Farnfield MM, Breen L, Carey KA, Garnham A, Cameron-Smith D. Activation of mTOR signalling in young and old human skeletal muscle in response to combined resistance exercise and whey protein ingestion. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2012, 37: 21-30.
Ferrari M, Mottola L, Quaresima V. Principles, techniques, and limitations of near infrared spectroscopy. Can J Appl Physiol. 2004, 29: 463-487.
Frost RA, Lang CH. Protein kinase B/Akt: a nexus of growth factor and cytokine signaling in determining muscle mass. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2007, 103: 378-387.
Fueger PT, Hess HS, Posey KA, Bracy DP, Pencek RR, Charron MJ, Wasserman DH. Control of exercise-stimulated muscle glucose uptake by GLUT4 is dependent on glucose phosphorylation capacity in the conscious mouse. J Biol Chem. 2004, 279: 50956-50961.
Glass DJ. Skeletal muscle hypertrophy and atrophy signaling pathways. Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2005, 37: 1974-1984.
Gran P, Cameron-Smith D. The actions of exogenous leucine on mTOR signalling and amino acid transporters in human myotubes. BMC Physiol. 2011, 11: 10.
Grassi B, Porcelli S, Marzorati M, Lanfranconi F, Vago P, Marconi C, Morandi L. Metabolic myopathies: functional evaluation by analysis of oxygen uptake kinetics. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2009, 41: 2120-2127.
Gui D, Guo Y, Wang F, Liu W, Chen J, Chen Y, Huang J, Wang N. Astragaloside IV, a novel antioxidant, prevents glucose-induced podocyte apoptosis in vitro and in vivo. PLoS One. 2012, 7: e39824.
Hameed M, Lange KH, Andersen JL, Schjerling P, Kjaer M, Harridge SD, Goldspink G. The effect of recombinant human growth hormone and resistance training on IGF-I mRNA expression in the muscles of elderly men. J Physiol. 2004, 555: 231-240.
Hawley JA, Zierath JR. Integration of metabolic and mitogenic signal transduction in skeletal muscle. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2004, 32: 4-8.
Hawke TJ. Muscle stem cells and exercise training. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2005, 33: 63-68.
Henneman E, Somjen G, Carpenter DO. Functional significance of cell size in spinal motoneurons. J Neurophysiol. 1965, 28: 560-580.
Henriksen EJ, Bourey RE, Rodnick KJ, Koranyi L, Permutt MA, Holloszy JO. Glucose transporter protein content and glucose transport capacity in rat skeletal muscles. Am J Physiol. 1990, 259: E593-E598.
Herbst KL, Bhasin S. Testosterone action on skeletal muscle. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care. 2004, 7: 271-217.
Hong MJ, Ko EB, Park SK, Chang MS. Inhibitory effect of Astragalus membranaceus root on matrix metalloproteinase-1 collagenase expression and procollagen destruction in ultraviolet B-irradiated human dermal fibroblasts by suppressing nuclear factor kappa-B activity. J Pharm Pharmacol. 2013, 65: 142-148.
Hornberger TA, Chu WK, Mak YW, Hsiung JW, Huang SA, Chien S. The role of phospholipase D and phosphatidic acid in the mechanical activation of mTOR signaling in skeletal muscle. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006, 103: 4741-4746.
Hsu MC, Chien KY, Hsu CC, Chung CJ, Chan KH, Su B. Effects of BCAA, arginine and carbohydrate combined drink on post-exercise biochemical response and psychological condition. Chin J Physiol. 2011, 54: 71-78.
Huang LF, Yao YM, Li JF, Zhang SW, Li WX, Dong N, Yu Y, Sheng ZY. The effect of Astragaloside IV on immune function of regulatory T cell mediated by high mobility group box 1 protein in vitro. Fitoterapia. 2012, 83: 1514-1522.
Hulmi JJ, Tannerstedt J, Selänne H, Kainulainen H, Kovanen V, Mero AA. Resistance exercise with whey protein ingestion affects mTOR signaling pathway and myostatin in men. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2009, 106: 1720-1729.
Hymer WC, Kraemer WJ, Nindl BC, Marx JO, Benson DE, Welsch JR, Mazzetti SA, Volek JS, Deaver DR. Characteristics of circulating growth hormone in women after acute heavy resistance exercise. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2001, 281: E878-E887.
Inoue K, Yamasaki S, Fushiki T, Okada Y, Sugimoto E. Androgen receptor antagonist suppresses exercise-induced hypertrophy of skeletal muscle. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1994, 69: 88-91.
Jeong HW, Cho SY, Kim S, Shin ES, Kim JM, Song MJ, Park PJ, Sohn JH, Park H, Seo DB, Kim WG, Lee SJ. Chitooligosaccharide induces mitochondrial biogenesis and increases exercise endurance through the activation of Sirt1 and AMPK in rats. PLoS One. 2012, 7: e40073.
Kakigi R, Yoshihara T, Ozaki H, Ogura Y, Ichinoseki-Sekine N, Kobayashi H, Naito H. Whey protein intake after resistance exercise activates mTOR signaling in a dose-dependent manner in human skeletal muscle. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2014, 114: 735-742.
Katsanos CS, Kobayashi H, Sheffield-Moore M, Aarsland A, Wolfe RR. A high proportion of leucine is required for optimal stimulation of the rate of muscle protein synthesis by essential amino acids in the elderly. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2006, 291: E381-E387.
Kimball SR, Farrell PA, Jefferson LS. Invited Review: Role of insulin in translational control of protein synthesis in skeletal muscle by amino acids or exercise. J Appl Physiol (1985). 2002, 93: 1168-1180.
Kirwan JP, del Aguila LF. Insulin signalling, exercise and cellular integrity. Biochem Soc Trans. 2003, 31: 1281-1285.
Kraemer WJ, Adams K, Cafarelli E, Dudley GA, Dooly C, Feigenbaum MS, Fleck SJ, Franklin B, Fry AC, Hoffman JR, Newton RU, Potteiger J, Stone MH, Ratamess NA, Triplett-McBride T; American College of Sports Medicine. American College of Sports Medicine position stand. Progression models in resistance training for healthy adults. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2002, 34: 364-380.
Kraemer WJ, Aguilera BA, Terada M, Newton RU, Lynch JM, Rosendaal G, McBride JM, Gordon SE, Häkkinen K. Responses of IGF-I to endogenous increases in growth hormone after heavy-resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol. 1995, 79: 1310-1315.
Kraemer WJ, Gordon SE, Fleck SJ, Marchitelli LJ, Mello R, Dziados JE, Friedl K, Harman E, Maresh C, Fry AC. Endogenous anabolic hormonal and growth factor responses to heavy resistance exercise in males and females. Int J Sports Med. 1991, 12: 228-235.
Kraemer WJ, Häkkinen K, Newton RU, McCormick M, Nindl BC, Volek JS, Gotshalk LA, Fleck SJ, Campbell WW, Gordon SE, Farrell PA, Evans WJ. Acute hormonal responses to heavy resistance exercise in younger and older men. Eur J Appl Physiol Occup Physiol. 1998, 77: 206-211.
Kraemer WJ, Marchitelli L, Gordon SE, Harman E, Dziados JE, Mello R, Frykman P, McCurry D, Fleck SJ. Hormonal and growth factor responses to heavy resistance exercise protocols. J Appl Physiol (1985). 1990, 69: 1442-1450.
Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA. Fundamentals of resistance training: progression and exercise prescription. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004, 36: 674-688.
Kraemer WJ, Ratamess NA, French DN. Resistance training for health and performance. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2002, 1: 165-171.
Kumar V, Atherton P, Smith K, Rennie MJ. Human muscle protein synthesis and breakdown during and after exercise. J Appl Physiol. 2009, 106: 2026-2039.
Kuo YH, Tsai WJ, Loke SH, Wu TS, Chiou WF. Astragalus membranaceus flavonoids (AMF) ameliorate chronic fatigue syndrome induced by food intake restriction plus forced swimming. J Ethnopharmacol. 2009, 122: 28-34.
Kwon HJ, Hwang J, Lee SK, Park YD. Astragaloside content in the periderm, cortex, and xylem of Astragalus membranaceus root. J Nat Med. 2013, 67: 850-855.
Lai KM, Gonzalez M, Poueymirou WT, Kline WO, Na E, Zlotchenko E, Stitt TN, Economides AN, Yancopoulos GD, Glass DJ. Conditional activation of akt in adult skeletal muscle induces rapid hypertrophy. Mol Cell Biol. 2004, 24: 9295-9304.
Latres E, Amini AR, Amini AA, Griffiths J, Martin FJ, Wei Y, Lin HC, Yancopoulos GD, Glass DJ. Insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) inversely regulates atrophy-induced genes via the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt/mammalian target of rapamycin (PI3K/Akt/mTOR) pathway. J Biol Chem. 2005, 280: 2737-2744.
Lawson MA, Purslow PP. Differentiation of myoblasts in serum-free media: effects of modified media are cell line-specific. Cells Tissues Organs. 2000, 167: 130-137.
Le Roith D, Bondy C, Yakar S, Liu JL, Butler A. The somatomedin hypothesis: 2001. Endocr Rev. 2001, 22: 53-74.
Lee DY, Noh HJ, Choi J, Lee KH, Lee MH, Lee JH, Hong Y, Lee SE, Kim SY, Kim GS. Anti-inflammatory cycloartane-type saponins of Astragalus membranaceus. Molecules. 2013, 18: 3725-3732.
Leenders M, Verdijk LB, Van der Hoeven L, Van Kranenburg J, Nilwik R, Wodzig WK, Senden JM, Keizer HA, Van Loon LJ. Protein supplementation during resistance-type exercise training in the elderly. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2013, 45: 542-552.
Liu M, Wu K, Mao X, Wu Y, Ouyang J. Astragalus polysaccharide improves insulin sensitivity in KKAy mice: regulation of PKB/GLUT4 signaling in skeletal muscle. J Ethnopharmacol. 2010, 127: 32-37.
Liu QY, Yao YM, Zhang SW, Sheng ZY. Astragalus polysaccharides regulate T cell-mediated immunity via CD11c(high)CD45RB(low) DCs in vitro. J Ethnopharmacol. 2011, 136: 457-464.
Long YC, Widegren U, Zierath JR. Exercise-induced mitogen-activated protein kinase signalling in skeletal muscle. Proc Nutr Soc. 2004, 63: 227-232.
Lv L, Wu SY, Wang GF, Zhang JJ, Pang JX, Liu ZQ, Xu W, Wu SG, Rao JJ. Effect of astragaloside IV on hepatic glucose-regulating enzymes in diabetic mice induced by a high-fat diet and streptozotocin. Phytother Res. 2010, 24: 219-224.
Ma XQ, Shi Q, Duan JA, Dong TT, Tsim KW. Chemical analysis of Radix Astragali (Huangqi) in China: a comparison with its adulterants and seasonal variations. J Agric Food Chem. 2002, 50: 4861-4866.
McCall GE, Byrnes WC, Dickinson A, Pattany PM, Fleck SJ. Muscle fiber hypertrophy, hyperplasia, and capillary density in college men after resistance training. J Appl Physiol. 1996, 81: 2004-2012.
Morissette MR, Cook SA, Buranasombati C, Rosenberg MA, Rosenzweig A. Myostatin inhibits IGF-I-induced myotube hypertrophy through Akt. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2009, 297: C1124-C1132.
Nilwik R, Snijders T, Leenders M, Groen BB, van Kranenburg J, Verdijk LB, van Loon LJ. The decline in skeletal muscle mass with aging is mainly attributed to a reduction in type II muscle fiber size. Exp Gerontol. 2013, 48: 492-498.
Nindl BC. Exercise modulation of growth hormone isoforms: current knowledge and future directions for the exercise endocrinologist. Br J Sports Med. 2007, 41: 346-348.
Nindl BC, Kraemer WJ, Marx JO, Arciero PJ, Dohi K, Kellogg MD, Loomis GA. Overnight responses of the circulating IGF-I system after acute, heavy-resistance exercise. J Appl Physiol. 2001, 90: 1319-1326.
Nindl BC, Kraemer WJ, Marx JO, Tuckow AP, Hymer WC. Growth hormone molecular heterogeneity and exercise. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2003, 31: 161-166.
Parkington JD, Siebert AP, LeBrasseur NK, Fielding RA. Differential activation of mTOR signaling by contractile activity in skeletal muscle. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2003, 285: R1086-R1090.
Peake J, Nosaka K, Suzuki K. Characterization of inflammatory responses to eccentric exercise in humans. Exerc Immunol Rev. 2005, 11: 64-85.
Philippou A, Bogdanis GC, Nevill AM, Maridaki M. Changes in the angle-force curve of human elbow flexors following eccentric and isometric exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2004, 93: 237-244.
Piwien-Pilipuk G, Huo JS, Schwartz J. Growth hormone signal transduction. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2002, 15: 771-786.
Proske U, Allen TJ. Damage to skeletal muscle from eccentric exercise. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2005, 33: 98-104.
Ren S, Zhang H, Mu Y, Sun M, Liu P. Pharmacological effects of Astragaloside IV: a literature review. J Tradit Chin Med. 2013, 33: 413-416.
Rieu I, Balage M, Sornet C, Giraudet C, Pujos E, Grizard J, Mosoni L, Dardevet D. Leucine supplementation improves muscle protein synthesis in elderly men independently of hyperaminoacidaemia. J Physiol. 2006, 575: 305-315.
Rommel C, Bodine SC, Clarke BA, Rossman R, Nunez L, Stitt TN, Yancopoulos GD, Glass DJ. Mediation of IGF-1-induced skeletal myotube hypertrophy by PI(3)K/Akt/mTOR and PI(3)K/Akt/GSK3 pathways. Nat Cell Biol. 2001, 3: 1009-1013.
Schiaffino S, Mammucari C. Regulation of skeletal muscle growth by the IGF1-Akt/PKB pathway: insights from genetic models. Skelet Muscle. 2011, 1: 4.
Short KR, Vittone JL, Bigelow ML, Proctor DN, Nair KS. Age and aerobic exercise training effects on whole body and muscle protein metabolism. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2004, 286: E92-E101.
Sinclair S. Chinese herbs: a clinical review of Astragalus, Ligusticum, and Schizandrae. Altern Med Rev. 1998, 3: 338-344.
Sinha-Hikim I, Roth SM, Lee MI, Bhasin S. Testosterone-induced muscle hypertrophy is associated with an increase in satellite cell number in healthy, young men. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab. 2003, 285: E197-E205.
Spiering BA, Kraemer WJ, Anderson JM, Armstrong LE, Nindl BC, Volek JS, Maresh CM. Resistance exercise biology: manipulation of resistance exercise programme variables determines the responses of cellular and molecular signalling pathways. Sports Med. 2008, 38: 527-540.
Sullivan DH, Roberson PK, Smith ES, Price JA, Bopp MM. Effects of muscle strength training and megestrol acetate on strength, muscle mass, and function in frail older people. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2007, 55: 20-28.
Terada N, Patel HR, Takase K, Kohno K, Nairn AC, Gelfand EW. Rapamycin selectively inhibits translation of mRNAs encoding elongation factors and ribosomal proteins. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994, 91: 11477-11481.
Trappe SW, Trappe TA, Lee GA, Widrick JJ, Costill DL, Fitts RH. Comparison of a space shuttle flight (STS-78) and bed rest on human muscle function. J Appl Physiol. 2001, 91: 57-64.
Trendelenburg AU, Meyer A, Rohner D, Boyle J, Hatakeyama S, Glass DJ. Myostatin reduces Akt/TORC1/p70S6K signaling, inhibiting myoblast differentiation and myotube size. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2009, 296: C1258-C1270.
Verdijk LB, Jonkers RA, Gleeson BG, Beelen M, Meijer K, Savelberg HH, Wodzig WK, Dendale P, van Loon LJ. Protein supplementation before and after exercise does not further augment skeletal muscle hypertrophy after resistance training in elderly men. Am J Clin Nutr. 2009, 89: 608-16.
Wang S, Li J, Huang H, Gao W, Zhuang C, Li B, Zhou P, Kong D. Anti-hepatitis B virus activities of astragaloside IV isolated from radix Astragali. Biol Pharm Bull. 2009, 32: 132-135.
Wang SG, Xu Y, Chen JD, Yang CH, Chen XH. Astragaloside IV stimulates angiogenesis and increases nitric oxide accumulation via JAK2/STAT3 and ERK1/2 pathway. Molecules. 2013, 18: 12809-12819.
Warren GL, Ingalls CP, Lowe DA, Armstrong RB. Excitation-contraction uncoupling: major role in contraction-induced muscle injury. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 2001, 29: 82-87.
Willett M, Cowan JL, Vlasak M, Coldwell MJ, Morley SJ. Inhibition of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signalling in C2C12 myoblasts prevents myogenic differentiation without affecting the hyperphosphorylation of 4E-BP1. Cell Signal. 2009, 21: 1504-1512.
Winder WW, Taylor EB, Thomson DM. Role of AMP-activated protein kinase in the molecular adaptation to endurance exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2006, 38: 1945-1949.
Xu XL, Chen XJ, Ji H, Li P, Bian YY, Yang D, Xu JD, Bian ZP, Zhang JN. Astragaloside IV improved intracellular calcium handling in hypoxia-reoxygenated cardiomyocytes via the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca-ATPase. Pharmacology. 2008, 81: 325-332.
Yaffe D, Saxel O. Serial passaging and differentiation of myogenic cells isolated from dystrophic mouse muscle. Nature. 1977, 270: 725-727.
Yang J, Wang HX, Zhang YJ, Yang YH, Lu ML, Zhang J, Li ST, Zhang SP, Li G. Astragaloside IV attenuates inflammatory cytokines by inhibiting TLR4/NF-кB signaling pathway in isoproterenol-induced myocardial hypertrophy. J Ethnopharmacol. 2013, 150: 1062-1070.
Zajac A, Poprzecki S, Zebrowska A, Chalimoniuk M, Langfort J. Arginine and ornithine supplementation increases growth hormone and insulin-like growth factor-1 serum levels after heavy-resistance exercise in strength-trained athletes. J Strength Cond Res. 2010, 24: 1082-1090.
Zhang L, Liu Q, Lu L, Zhao X, Gao X, Wang Y. Astragaloside IV stimulates angiogenesis and increases hypoxia-inducible factor-1α accumulation via phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2011, 338: 485-491.
Zhang Y, Hu G, Li S, Li ZH, Lam CO, Hong SJ, Kwan YW, Chan SW, Leung GP, Lee SM. Pro-angiogenic activity of astragaloside IV in HUVECs in vitro and zebrafish in vivo. Mol Med Rep. 2012, 5: 805-811.
Zhang WL, Zheng KY, Zhu KY, Zhan JY, Bi CW, Chen JP, Dong TT, Choi RC, Lau DT, Tsim KW. Chemical and biological assessment of angelica roots from different cultivated regions in a chinese herbal decoction danggui buxue tang. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2013, 2013: 483286.
Zhao M, Zhao J, He G, Sun X, Huang X, Hao L. Effects of astragaloside IV on action potentials and ionic currents in guinea-pig ventricular myocytes. Biol Pharm Bull. 2013, 36: 515-521.