臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

論文名稱：差異化英文聽力任務對高中學生在聽力能力，動機的影響及聽力策略運用之研究
校所組別:國立高雄師範大學英語學系碩士班
畢業時間:一百零二學年度第二學期
指導教授: 石素錦 博士
研究生: 吳秋美

論文提要:
本研究旨在探討三種差異化聽力任務，對三種中、低、高能力的高中學生，在中級全民英檢聽力測驗、任務動機、及聽力策略的影響。
　 此研究對象為高雄市立某一間高中，兩個班級的學生，一個是實驗組，另一個是控制組，研究對象共79人。實驗組分成三組能力混合的的組，每組有四位成員，其中高分組員一人，中分組員兩人及低分組員一人，這三種能力的組員在同一組，進行差異化聽力任務的訓練，高分組進行康奈筆記及搭配詞的聽寫訓練，中分組組員進行搭配詞聽寫訓練，低分組組員進行關鍵字聽寫訓練；控制組則是進行傳統教學法。研究人員使用四種測量工具，分別是: 三種聽力任務，線上中級全民英檢聽力，以及聽力動機、任務動機、聽力策略問卷。實驗組和控制組均實行線上全民英檢中級，以及聽力策略問卷，而實驗組除了進行三種不同聽寫測驗之外還完成聽力動機、任務動機的問卷。研究人員收集了資料，將資料分析，得到了以下的結果:
1. 在差異化聽力任務的訓練之後，實驗組和控制組在聽力段考前測分數和聽力段考後測分數間没有顯著差異。
2. 在差異化聽力任務的訓練之後，實驗組中分組及低分組在聽力段考前測分數和聽力段考後測分數間有顯著差異，然而在高分組没有顯著差異。
3. 至於段考英聽前測、段考英聽後測、及全民英檢中級之間的相關性而言，英聽前測和英聽後測、英聽後測和全民英檢中級、英聽前測和全民英檢中級有正相關。
4. 至於實驗組中、低、高三種程度組員在段考英聽前測、段考英聽後測、及全民英檢中級之間的相關性而言，在高分組員中，段考英聽前測和全民英檢中級聽力有正相關;在中分組員中，段考英聽後測和全民英檢中級聽力有正相關;在低分組員中，段考英聽前測和段考英聽後測則有正相關。
5. 三種能力組員在聽力動機上，没有發現顯著相關。
6. 三種能力組員在任務動機上，没有發現顯著相關。
7. 至於實驗組和控制組在聽力策略問卷上的使用情形，控制組和實驗組相比，使用較多的記憶、認知、後設認知及情意的聽力策略。
8. 至於三種能力組員在聽力策略問卷上使用情形，中分組員和低分組員相比，中分組員使用較多的認知策略。
總言之，本研究建議教師在能力混合的班級中進行聽力教學時，應針對不同程度學生，進行不同的聽力訓練,特別是中分組及低分組學生;此外,教師可以根據不同聽力程度學生，利用差異化聽力任務來示範不同的聽力策略。

ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to explore the effect of three differentiated ESL listening tasks on listening proficiency test, task motivation and strategy use of senior high school students.
Two classes of 79 subjects in this study were from one of the Kaohsiung municipal senior high schools. One class constituted the experimental group while the other class was classified into the control group. The experimental group received the treatment of three differentiated listening tasks, while the control group proceeded with the baseline approach. Three instruments were utilized in this study: (a) three listening tasks: (1) The key-word dictation (2) The dictation of chunking (3)The Cornell Notes used as Dictolgloss, (b) two questionnaires, (c) the on-line Intermediate GEPT listening test. Both groups were required to complete the questionnaire of listening strategy use and take the on-line Intermediate GEPT listening test. Further, the experimental group was divided into three ability levels: high-level, middle-level and low-level. The high-level subjects received the Cornell Notes as Dictogloss and dictation of collocation while the middle-level subjects received the dictation of collocation. And still the low-level subjects received the dictation of key words. The researcher collected the data and analyzed them through SPSS.
The major findings of this study are summarized as follows:
1. After the differentiated listening tasks, there was no statistical significance in the relationship between the listening midterm pretest and listening midterm posttest between the experimental group and the control group.
2. After the differentiated listening tasks, there was statistical significance in the listening midterm pretest and listening midterm posttest in the middle-level and low-level subjects. However, the difference was not significant in the high-level subjects.
3. As for the correlations among Pretest, Posttest and GEPT in the two groups, positive correlations existed between Pretest and Posttest, between Pretest and GEPT, and between Posttest and GEPT.
4. Concerning the correlations among Pretest, Posttest and GEPT among the three levels, there was moderate positive correlation between Pretest and GEPT in the high-level subjects. Moderate positive correlation also existed between Posttest and GEPT in the middle-level subjects while in the low-level subjects, there was also moderate positive correlation between Pretest and Posttest.
5. In terms of listening motivation, there was no statistical significant difference among the three levels of subjects in the experimental group.
6. As for the task motivation, no statistical significance was found among the three levels of subjects in the experimental group.
7. With respect to the use of listening strategy between the two groups, the control group used the following listening strategies more frequently than the experimental group: memory, cognitive, metacognitive and affective strategy.
8. With regard to the listening strategy use among the three levels in the experimental group, middle-level subjects used more cognitive strategy than their low-level counterparts.
To sum up, it is suggested that EFL listening instructors use different levels of listening tasks in different levels of students in a mixed-ability EFL class, particularly for middle and low-level listeners. The findings of this study also suggest that EFL instructors utilize listening midterm exams to predict their students’ intermediate GEPT listening test scores. ESL instructors can use modeling to demonstrate different listening strategies in differentiated listening tasks based on multiple levels of listeners.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Acknowledgements........................... i
Chinese Abstract.......................... ii
English Abstract………………………………………………………………………………iii
Table of Contents.......................... v
List of Tables ........................... viii
List of Figures............................ x
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION.................. 1
1.1 Background and Motivation 1
1.2 Problems of the Study 4
1.3 Purpose of this Study 5
1.4 Research Questions 6
1.5 Definition of Terms 7
1.6 Limitations of the Study 8
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 10
2.1 Listening in First Language 10
2.2 Listening in Learning English as a Second Language 12
2.2.1 The Role of Listening in English as a Second Language Learning 13
2.2.2 The Cognitive Process of Listening 14
2.2.3 Studies on the Relationships among Listening Ability, Listening Proficiency and Language Proficiency 21
2.2.4 Task-based Listening 23
2.2.5 Listening Strategy Use of ESL Listeners 28
2.2.6 Studies on the Relationships between Listening Proficiency and Listening Strategy Use 33
2.3 Motivation in Learning English as a Second Language 35
2.3.1 Integrated Motivation and Instrumental Motivation 36
2.3.2 Intrinsic Motivation and Extrinsic Motivation 37
2.3.3 Task Motivation 38
2.4 Differentiated Instruction 42
2.4.1 Principles of Differentiated Instruction 43
2.4.2 Differentiated Instruction in Different Academic Subjects 44
2.4.3 Empirical Studies of Differentiated Instruction on Learning Motivation 46
2.4.4 Task-based Teaching in Differentiated Instruction 47
2.4.5 Student Readiness in Differentiated Instruction 49
CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 52
3.1 Research Design 52
3.2 Subjects 54
3.3 Instruments 54
3.3.1 Differentiated Listening Tasks 55
3.3.2 The On-line Intermediate GEPT Listening Test 60
3.3.3 Questionnaires 61
3.4 Pilot Study 62
3.5 Procedure 64
3.6 Data Analysis 68
3.6.1 Quantitative Analysis 69
CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 71
4.1 Distribution of the Subjects 71
4.2 Relationship between Listening Midterm Pretest and Listening Midterm Posttest between Two Groups 71
4.3 Relationship between Pretest and Posttest among Three Levels 73
4.4 Correlation among Pretest, Posttest and GEPT in Two Groups 74
4.5 Correlation among Pretest, Posttest and GEPT among the Three Levels 78
4.6 Differences in Pretest and GEPT among Three Levels 79
4.7 Listening Motivation among Three Levels 81
4.8 Differentiated Task Motivation among Three Levels 75
4.9 Listening Strategy Use between Two Groups 91
4.10 Use of Listening Strategy Types among Three Levels 86
CHAPTER FIVE CONCLUSIONS 96
5.1 Summary of the Major Findings 96
5.2 Pedagogical Implications 99
5.3. Suggestions for Future Research 101
REFERENCES 104
APPENDIX A: The Dictation of Key Words 124
APPENDIX B: The Dictation of Collocation 126
APPENDIX C: Cornell Notes for Listening 128
APPENDIX D: Differentiated Listening Task Motivation Questionnaire 129
APPENDIX E: Questionnaire in Chinese 133
APPENDIX F: Questionnaire in Chinese 138
APPENDIX G: Strategy Inventory for EFL Listening Comprehension 141

REFERENCES

Amin, I. A.-R., Amin, M. M., & Aly, M. A.-S. (2011). A correlation study between EFL strategic listening and listening comprehension skills among secondary school students: Online Submission.

Anderson, A., & Lynch T. (1988). Listening. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Aponte-de-Hanna, C. (2012). Listening strategies in the L2 classroom: More practice, less testing. College Quarterly, 15(1).

Ariew, R. A., Dunkel, P. A., & Pennsylvania State Univ, U. P. (1989). A Prototype for a Computer-Based Listening Comprehension Proficiency Test. Final Report.

Bantis. (2008). Using Task based writing instruction to provide differentiated instruction for English language learners. Master thesis of University of Southern California.

Baumann, C. C. (2013). Teaching and learning second language listening: Metacognition in action. Modern Language Journal, 97 (2), 579-581.

Beall, M. L., Gill-Rosier, J., Tate, J., & Matten, A. (2008). State of the context: Listening in education. International Journal of Listening, 22 (2), 123-132.

Belland, B. R., Glazewski, K. D., & Ertmer, P. A. (2009). Inclusion and problem-based learning: Roles of students in a mixed-ability group. Research in Middle Level Education Online, 32 (9), 1-19.
Benati. (2005). The effects of processing instruction, traditional instruction and meaning—output instruction on the acquisition of the English past simple tense. Language Teaching Research, 9 (1): 67-93.
Berne, J. E. (1998). Examining the relationship between L2 listening research, pedagogical theory, and practice. Foreign Language Annals, 31 (2), 169-190.

Berne, J. E. (2004). Listening comprehension strategies: A review of the literature. Foreign Language Annals, 37 (4), 521-533.

Blaz, D. (2006). Differentiated instruction: A guide for foreign language teachers. Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education.

Boekaerts, M. (2002). The on-line motivation questionnaire: A self-report instrument to assess students’ context sensitivity. In P. R. Pintrich & M. L. Machr (Eds.) Advances in motivation and achievement 12: New directions in measures and methods (pp. 77-120). Stamford, CT: JAI Press.

Boekaerts, M. (2002). Student appraisals and emotions within classroom context. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.

Bohlken, B. (1998). Standards and activities for listening competencies at the secondary level. Proposed ILA Standards & Activities.

Bostrom, R. N. (2011). Rethinking conceptual approaches to the study of "Listening". International Journal of Listening, 25(1/2), 10-26.

Brindley, G. 1998. Assessing listening abilities. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 18:171-91.

Brindley & Slatyer. (2002). Exploring task difficulty in ESL listening assessment. Language Testing, 19 (4) 369–394 10.

Brown, G. 1987. Twenty-five years of teaching listening comprehension. English Teaching Forum 25, 4:11-15.

Brown, H. D. (2000). Principles of language learning and teaching (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Brown, A. L., & Palinscar, A. S. (1982). Inducing strategic learning from texts by means of informed, self-control training. Topics in Learning and Learning Disabilities, 2, 1–17.

Brownell, J. (1996). Listening: Attitudes, principles, and skills. Boston, MA.: Allyn & Bacon.

Burleson, B. R. (2011). A constructivist approach to listening. International Journal of Listening, 25 (1-2), 27-46.

Carter, R. & McCarthy, M. (1997). Exploring spoken English. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Chamot, A. U., & Ku¨ pper, L. (1989). Learning strategies in foreign language instruction. Foreign Language Annals, 22 (1), 13–24.

Chamot, A. U., O’Malley, J. M., Ku¨ pper, L., & Impink-Hernandez, M. P. (1987). A study of learning strategies in foreign language instruction: First year report. Rosslyn, VA: Interstate Research Associates.

Chamot, A. U., Interstate Research Associates, M. V. A., & et al. (1990). Learning strategy instruction in the foreign language classroom: Listening.

Chand, R. K. (2007). Same size doesn't fit all: Insights from research on listening skills at the University of the South Pacific (USP). International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 8 (3), 1-22.

Chang, A. C.-S. (2008). Listening strategies of L2 learners with varied test tasks. TESL Canada Journal, 26 (2), 1-26.

Chang, A. C.-S., & Read, J. (2008). Reducing listening test anxiety through various forms of listening support. TESL-EJ, 12 (1).

Chen, Mei-lan. (2002). The effects of repetition and pictures at different time periods on the listening comprehension of senior high students in Taiwan. Unpublished master’s thesis, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Taiwan, R.O.C..

Cheon, J., & Grant, M. (2009). Active listening: Web-based assessment tool for communication and active listening skill development. TechTrends: Linking Research & Practice to Improve Learning, 53 (6), 24-34.

Clark, H. H., & Clark, E.V. (1997). Psychology and language. New York: Harcour Brace Jovanovich.

Clement, R., Ontario Inst. for Studies in Education, T. B. E. P., & et al. (1977). Attitudes and motivation in second language acquisition: An investigation of ontariofrancophones. Working Papers on Bilingualism, 12.

Cramond, B. (1993). Speaking and listening: Key components of a complete language arts program for the gifted. Roeper Review, 16 (1), 44-48.

Crookes, G., & Schmidt, R. (1991). Motivation: Reopening the research agenda. Language Learning, 41 (4), 469-512.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. & Rathunde, K. (1993). The measurement of flow in everyday life. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation, 40, 57-97.

Csizér, K., & Dörnyei, Z. (2005). Language learners’ motivational profiles and their motivated learning behavior. Language learning, 55 (4), 613-659.

Dąbrowska. (2014). Measuring individual differences in native speakers’ knowledge of collocations. The Mental Lexicon 9 (3), 401–418.

Decker, C., & et al. (1994). Listening Skills. Instructor/Lesson Guide.

DeWitt-Brinks, D., & Rhodes, S. C. (1992). Listening instruction: A qualitative meta-analysis of twenty-four selected studies.

Donohoo, J. (2010). Learning how to learn: Cornell Notes as an example. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 54 (3), 224-227.

Dörnyei, Z. (1994). Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom. The Modern Language Journal, 78 , 273-284.

Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language Teaching, 31, 117-135.

Dörnyei, Z., & Kormos, J. (2000). The role of individual and social variables in oral task performance. Language Teaching Research, 4 (3), 275-300.

Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Dörnyei, Z., & Csizer, K. (1998). Ten commandments for motivating language learners: Results of an empirical study. Language Teaching Research, 2 , 203-229.
Dörnyei, Z. (2002). The motivational basis of language learning tasks. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Individual differences and instructed language learning (pp. 137–158). Amsterdam: Benjamins.


Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner . Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.


Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning: Advances in theory, research, and applications. Language Learning, 53 , 3-32.

Dörnyei, Z., & Tseng, W. T. (2009). Motivational processing in interactional tasks. Multiple perspectives on interaction: Second language research in honor of Susan M. Gass, 117-134.

Dörnyei, Z. (2005). Individual differences: Interplay of learner characteristics and learning environment. Language Learning, 59.

Dunkel, P. (1986a). Developing listening fluency in L2: Theoretical principles and pedagogical considerations. The Modern Language Journal, 70 (2), 99-106.

Ediger, M. (2012). Listening in the Integrated Curriculum. Reading Improvement, 49 (1), 3-5.

Ellis, N. C., & Simpson-Vlach, R. (2009). Formulaic language in native speakers: Triangulating psycholinguistics, corpus linguistics, and education. Corpus Linguistics and Linguistic Theory, 5, 61–78.

Ellis, R. (2009). Task-based language teaching: sorting out the misunderstandings. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 19 (3), 221-246.

Fayyaz, W., & Kamal, A. (2011). Personality traits and the metacognitive listening skills of English as a foreign language in Pakistan. Journal of Behavioural Sciences, 21, 59-76.

Field, J. (1998). Skills and strategies: Towards a new methodology for listening. ELT Journal, 52 (2), 110-118.

Field, J. (2003). Promoting perception: Lexical segmentation in L2 listening. ELT Journal, 57 (4), 325-334.

Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2001). Access to the core curriculum: Critical ingredients for students. Remedial and Special Education, 22 , 148–157.

Fujita, J. N. (1984) A preliminary inquiry into the successful and unsuccessful listening strategies of beginning college Japanese students. (Doctoral dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1984). Dissertation Abstracts International, 45, 2424A.

Flowerdew & Miller. 2005. Second language listening. Cambridge.

Fortune, A. (2005). Learners' use of metalanguage in collaborative form-focused L2 output tasks. Language Awareness, 14 (1), 21-38.

Frost, K., Elder, C., & Wigglesworth, G. (2012). Investigating the validity of an integrated listening-speaking task: A discourse-based analysis of test takers' oral performances. Language Testing, 29 (3), 345-369.

Gagne´, M., & Deci, E. L. (2005). Self-determination theory and work motivation. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26, 331-362.

Garcia Mayo, M. P. (2002) The effectiveness of two form-focused tasks in advanced EFL pedagogy. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 12, 156-175.

Gardner, R. C., & Teachers of English to Speakers of Other, L. (1968). Attitudes and motivation: Their role in second-language acquisition: TESOL Quarterly.

Gardner, R. C. 1985. Social psychology and second language learning. Baltimore, MD: Edward Arnold.

Gilakjani, A. P., Leong, L. M., & Sabouri, N. B. (2012). A study on the role of motivation in foreign language learning and teaching. International Journal of Modern Education and Computer Science (IJMECS), 4 (7), 9.

Ginther, A. (2002). Context and content visuals and performance on listening comprehension stimuli. Language Testing, 19 (2), 133-167.

Godfrey, D. (1977). Listening instruction and practice for advanced second language students. Language Learning, 27, 109-122.

Goh, C. C. (1998). How ESL learners with different listening abilities use comprehension strategies and tactics. Language Teaching Research, 2 (2), 124-147.

Goh, C. C. (1999). What learners know about the factors that influence their listening
comprehension, Hong Kong Journal of Applied Linguistics,4 : 17-42

Goh, C. C. (2002). Exploring listening comprehension tactics and their interaction patterns. System, 30 (2), 185-206.

Goh, C. (2005). Second language listening expertise. Expertise in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 64-84.

Goh, C., & Taib, Y. (2006). Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners. ELT Journal, 60 (3), 222-232.

Goh, C. (2000). A cognitive perspective on language learners’ listening comprehension problems. System, 28 , 55–75.

Goh, C. (2002). Teaching listening in the language classroom. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre.

Hackler & Flaherty. (2010). Exploring the effects of differentiated instruction and cooperative learning on the intrinsic motivational behaviors of elementary reading students. Master thesis of Saint Xavier University, Chicago.

Hadley, A. O. (2001). Teaching language in context. Boston: Heinle & Heinle.

Halliday, M. and Hasan, R. (1983). Cohesion in English. Harlow: Longman.

Heller, A., & et al. (1995). A comparison of listening and speaking tests for student placement. Edinburgh working papers in applied linguistics, 6, 27-40.

Holloway, J. H. (2000). Preparing teachers for differentiated instruction. Educational Leadership, 58 (1), 82.

Hui-Fang, S. (2008). Listening strategy use and linguistic patterns in listening comprehension by EFL Learners. International Journal of Listening, 22 (1), 29-45.

Irvine, P., Atai, P., & Oller, J. W., Jr. (1974). Cloze, dictation, and the test of English as a foreign language. Language Learning, 24 , 245-252.

Jacobs, G., & Small, J. (2003). Combining dictogloss and cooperative learning to promote language learning. Reading Matrix: An International Online Journal, 3 (1).

Jamie Danzi, B.A., Kelly Reul, B.S. & Rana Smith, B.A.. (2008). Improving student motivation in mixed ability classrooms using differentiated instruction. Saint Xavier University & Pearson Achievement Solutions, Inc. Field-Based Master’s Program.

Johnsen, S. (2003). Adapting instruction with heterogeneous groups. Gifted Child Today, 26 (3), 5-6.
Johansson, S., & Lund Univ. . Dept. of, E. (1973). Partial dictation as a Test of Foreign Language Proficiency. Swedish-English Contrastive Studies, Report No. 3.

Jones, R. E., Yssel, N., & Grant, C. (2012). Reading instruction in tier 1: Bridging the gaps by nesting evidence-based interventions within differentiated instruction. Psychology in the Schools, 49 (3), 210-218.

Jones, S. M. (2011). Supportive listening. International Journal of Listening, 25 (1-2), 85-103.

Kalbfleisch, M. L. &Tomlinson, C. A. (1998). Teach me, teach my brain: A call for differentiated classrooms. Educational Leadership, 56 (3), 52-55.

Kasanga, L. A. (1996). Peer interaction and L2 learning. Canadian Modern Language Review, 52 (4), 611-639.

Khaldieh, S. A. (2000). Learning strategies and the writing processes of proficient vs. less proficient learners of Arabic. Foreign Language Annals, 33 (5), 522-533.

Kondor, C. A. H. (2007). One size may not fit all, but the right teaching strategies might: The effects of differentiated instruction on the motivation of talented and gifted students. Online Submission.

Kranyik, M. A. (1975). Teaching to listen and listening to teach.

Krashen, Stephen D. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Oxford, UK: Pergamon Press.

Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis. New York: Longman.

Latz, A. O., Speirs Neumeister, K. L., Adams, C. M., & Pierce, R. L. (2009). Peer coaching to improve classroom differentiation: Perspectives from project CLUE. Roeper Review, 31(1), 27-39.

Leeser, M. J. (2008). Pushed output, noticing, and development of past tense morphology in content-based instruction. Canadian Modern Language Review, 65 (2), 195-220.

Lewis. (2002). Teaching collocation: Further developments in the lexical approach. Hove: Language Teaching Publications, 2000.

Levy, H. M. (2008). Meeting the needs of all students through differentiated instruction: Helping every child reach and exceed standards. Clearing House, 81 (4), 161-164.

Lim, W. L., & Jacobs, G. M. (2001). An analysis of students' dyadic interaction on a dictogloss task.

Lin, S. H. (2000). A study of English listening comprehension strategies used by senior high school students in Taiwan. Master’s thesis, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Taiwan, R.O.C..

Markham, P. (1999). Captioned videotapes and second-language listening word recognition. Foreign Language Annals, 32 (3), 321-328.

Matsumoto, M. (2011). Second language learners' motivation and their perception of their teachers as an affecting factor. New Zealand Studies in Applied Linguistics, 17 (2), 37-52.

Mackey, A., & Sachs, R. (2011). Older learners in SLA research: A first look at working memory, feedback and L2 development. Language Learning .

McKenzie, G. K., & Zascavage, V.. (2012). Montessori instruction: A model for inclusion in early childhood classrooms and beyond. Montessori Life, 24 (1), 32-38.

Mecartty, F. H. (2000). Lexical and grammatical knowledge in reading and listening comprehension by foreign language learners of Spanish. Applied, 11 (2), 323-348.

Mendelsohn, D. (1998). Teaching listening. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 18 , 81–101.

Murphy, J. M. (1985). An investigation into the listening strategies of ESL college students. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED27875)

Murphy, J. M. (1986). An investigation into the listening strategies of ESL college students. (Doctoral dissertation, Teachers College of Columbia University, 1985). Dissertation Abstracts International, 46, 2677A.

Murphy, J. M. (1987). The listening strategies of English as a second language college students. Research and Teaching in Developmental Education, 4 (1), 27-46.

Missoum, M. (2007). An Investigation of the lecture comprehension & note taking strategies of second year students of English at the University of Blida. Online Submission.

Morley, J., Languages, E. C. o., & Linguistics, W. D. C. (1984). Listening and language learning in ESL: Developing self-study activities for listening comprehension practice. Language in Education: Theory and Practice, No. 59.

Morrow, A., Goldstein, B. A., Gilhool, A., Paradisc, J., Schuele, C. M., & Brice, A. (2014). Phonological skills in English language learners. Language, Speech & Hearing Services in Schools, 45 (1), 26-39.

National Research Council. (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Noels, K. A., Clément, R., & Pelletier, L. G. (1999). Perceptions of teachers' communicative style and students' intrinsic and extrinsic Motivation. Modern Language Journal, 83 (1), 23-34.

Odgers & Symons. (2001). Differentiating the curriculum through the use of problem solving. Research in Science Education, 30 (3), 289-300.

O’Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U., & Kupper, L. (1989). Listening comprehension strategies in second language acquisition. Applied Linguistics, 10 (4), 418-437.

O’Malley, J. M., Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Osterloh, M., & Frey, B.S. (2000). Motivation, knowledge transfer, and organizational firms. Organization Science, 11, 538-550.

Oxford, R. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York: Newbury House.

Oxford, R. (1993). Research update on L2 listening. System, 21, 205–211.

Postovsky, Valerian A. 1981. "The priority of aural comprehension in the language acquisition process," 170-86 in Hams Winitz, ed., The Comprehension Approach to Foreign Language Instruction. Cambridge, MA Newbury House Publishers

Poupore, G. (2013). Task motivation in process: A complex systems perspective. Canadian Modern Language Review, 69 (1), 91-116.

Powers, D. E., & Educational Testing Service, P. N. J. (1985). A survey of academic demands related to listening skills. Test of English as a Foreign Language Research Reports , 20.

Prince, P. (2013). Listening, remembering, writing: Exploring the dictogloss task. Language Teaching Research, 17 (4), 486-500.

Read, J., & Nation, P. (2004). Measurement of formulaic sequences. In N. Schmitt (Ed.), Formulaic sequences: Acquisition, processing, and use (pp. 23–36). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: John Benjamins.

Revesz, A.. (2011). Task complexity, focus on L2 constructions, and individual differences: A classroom-based study. The Modern Language Journal, 95.

Richards, Jack C. 1983. Listening comprehension: Approach, design, procedure. TESOL Quarterly, 17: 219-40.

Richards, J. C., Platt, J., & Platt, H. (1992). Longman dictionary of language teaching and
applied linguistics (2nd edition). Harlow: Longman.

Rivera‐Mills, S. V., & Plonsky, L. (2007). Empowering students with language learning strategies: A critical review of current issues. Foreign Language Annals, 40 (3), 535-548.

Rivers, W. M., & Temperley, M. S. (1978). A practical guide to the Teaching of English as a second or foreign language. Oxford University Press.

Robinson, P. (2007). Task complexity, theory of mind, and intentional reasoning: Effects on L2 speech production, interaction, uptake and perceptions of task difficulty. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 45, 193–213.

Rock, J. (2012). Teaching and researching motivation. TESL-EJ, 16 (2), 1-4.
Rock, M. L., Gregg, M., Ellis, E., & Gable, R. A. (2008). REACH: A framework for differentiating classroom instruction. Preventing School Failure, 52 (2), 31-47.

Roehr, K. (2006). Metalinguistic knowledge in L2 task performance: A verbal protocol analysis. Language Awareness, 15(3), 180-198.

Rost, Michael. (1990). Listening in language learning. New York: Longman.

Rost. (2002). Teaching and researching listening. Pearson Education.

Rubin, Joan. 1994. A review of second language listening comprehension research. The Modern Language, 78, 199-221.

Rumelhart, D. E. 1975. Notes on a schema for stories. In D. G. Bobrow and A. Collins (eds.), Representation and understanding: Studies in cognitive science. New York: Academic Press.

Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic
definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25,
54-67.

Salmani-Nodoushan, M. A. (2008). A framework for task-oriented language instruction. Online Submission.

Sample, B., & Spring Inst. for International Studies, D. C. O. (1998). Active Listening - Information Gap. SCANS Plans Portfolio.

Samson, J. F., Collins, B. A., & Center for American, P. (2012). Preparing all teachers to meet the needs of English language learners: Applying research to policy and practice for teacher effectiveness, Center for American Progress.

Scarcella, R. C., & Oxford, R. L. (1992). The tapestry of language learning: The individual in the communicative classroom (p. 63). Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle.

Schumm, J. S &Vaughn, S.. (1991). Making adaptations for mainstream students: General classroom teachers’ perspectives. Remedial and Special Education, 12 (4), 18-7.

Schumm, J. S &Vaughn, S.. (1995). Responsible inclusion for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28(5), 264-270.

Schoenfeld, A. (1999). Looking toward the 21st century: Challenges of educational theory and practice. Educational Researcher, 28 (7), 4-14.

Shi, Y., & Zhou, L. (2011). Supporting dictation speech recognition error correction: the impact of external information. Behavior & Information Technology, 30 (6), 761-774.

Shrivastava, A., & Sundarsingh, J. (2010). Coping with the problems of mixed ability students. Language in India, 10 (1), 150-159.

Skehan, P. (1996). A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction. Applied Linguistics. 17, 38-62

Skehan, P. 1998. A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Sparks, R. L., Patton, J., Ganschow, L., & Humbach, N. (2012). Relationships among L1 print exposure and early L1 literacy skills, L2 aptitude, and L2 proficiency. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 25 (7), 1599-1634.

Sull, E. C. e. g. c. (2014). Student engagement, motivation, and rapport. Distance Learning, 11(3), 5-9.

Swain, M. (2005). The output hypothesis: Theory and research. Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning, 1, 471-483.

Tagliamonte, S. A. (1997). Obsolescence in the English perfect? Evidence from Samaná English. American speech: A Quarterly of Linguistic Usage, 72 (1), 33-68.

Taylor, S. E., American Educational Research Association, W. D. C., & National Education Association, W. D. C. A. o. C. T. (1964). Listening. What research says to the teacher, 29.

Teng, H. C. (1997). Schema-theoretic perspectives on listening comprehension. Journal of Yunlin Institute of Technology, 6 (2), 181-187.

Tice, T. N. (1995). Listening comprehension. Education Digest, 60 (7), 39.

Todd, J. R., & Mishra, J. (2013). Making listening instruction meaningful: A literature review. Applications of Research in Music Education, 31 (2), 4-10.

Tieso, C. (2003). Ability grouping is not just tracking anymore. Roper Review, 26, 29–36.

Tomlinson, C. (1995). Deciding to differentiate instruction in middle school: One school's journey. Gifted Child Quarterly, 39, 77-87.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2005). Grading and differentiation: Paradox or good practice? Theory into Practice, 44 (3), 262-269.

Tomlinson, C. A., and Kalbfleisch, M. L. (1998). Teach me, teach my brain: A call for
differentiated classrooms. Educational Leadership, 56 (3), 52-55.

Tomlinson, C. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2000a). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all
learners. Alexandria: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2000b). Reconcilable differences. Educational Leadership, 58 (1), 6-11.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2001a). Differentiated instruction in the regular classroom. Understanding Our Gifted, 14 (1), 3-6.

Tomlinson, C. A. (2001b). Grading for success. Educational Leadership, 58 (6), 12-15.

Tomlinson, C. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed ability classrooms (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson, C. (2003). Fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classroom: Strategies and tools for responsive teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson. (2003). Differentiating instruction in response to student readiness, interest, and learning profile in academically diverse classrooms: A review of literature. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 27 (2), 119-145.

Tricarico, K., & Yendol-Hoppey, D. (2012). Teacher learning through self-regulation: An exploratory study of alternatively prepared teachers' ability to plan differentiated instruction in an urban elementary school. Teacher Education Quarterly, 39 (1), 139-158.

Underhill, N. (1987). Testing spoken language: A handbook of oral testing techniques.
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Underwood, Mary. (1989). Teaching listening. New York: Longman.

Ur, Penny. (1984). Teaching listening comprehension. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Vandergrift, L. (2002). 'It was nice to see that our predictions were right': Developing metacognition in L2 listening comprehension. Canadian Modern Language Review, 58 (4), 555.

Vandergrift, L. (2006). Second language listening: Listening ability or language proficiency. Modern Language Journal, 90 (1), 6-18.

Vandergrift. (2003). Orchestrating strategy use: toward a model of the skilled second language listener. Language Learning, 53 (3).

Vandergrift, L. (2005). Relationships among motivation orientations, metacognitive awareness and proficiency in L2 listening. Applied Linguistics, 26 (1), 70-89.

Vandergrift. (2007). Recent developments in second and foreign language listening comprehension research. Language Teaching, 40 (3).

Vandergrift, L. (1997a). The comprehension strategies of second language (French) listeners: A descriptive study. Foreign Language Annals, 30 (3), 387-409.

Vandergrift, L. (1997b). The Cinderella of communication strategies: Reception strategies in interactive listening. Modern Language Journal, 81 (4), 494-505.

VanPatten, B., Inclezan, D., Salazar, H., & Farley, A. P. (2009). Processing instruction and Dictogloss: A study on object pronouns and word order in Spanish. Foreign Language Annals, 42 (3), 557-575.

Vasiljevic, Z. (2010). Dictogloss as an interactive method of teaching listening comprehension. English Language Teaching, 3, 41–52.

Vansieleghem, N. (2006). Listening to dialogue. Studies in Philosophy and Education, 25 (1-2), 175-190.

Vogely, Anita. (1995). Perceived strategy use during performance on three authentic listening tasks. The Modern Language, 79:41-56.

Wajnryb, R. (1990). Grammar dictation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Waldron, N. & McLeskey, J. (2001). An interview with Nancy Waldron and James
McLeskey. Intervention and School & Clinic, 36 (3), 175.

Wang, Y., & Liao, H.-C. (2011). Adaptive learning for ESL based on computation. British Journal of Educational Technology, 42 (1), 66-87.

Willard-Holt, C. (2003). Raising expectations for the gifted. Educational Leadership, 61 (2), 72-75.

Willis, J. (1996). A framework for tasked-based learning. London: Longman.

Willis, J. and D. Willis (eds.). 1996. Challenge and change in language teaching. Oxford: Heinemann Macmillan.

Willis, J. and D. Willis. (2007). Doing Task-based Teaching. Oxford University Press.

Wilson, M. (2003). Discovery listening: Improving perceptual processing. ELT Journal, 57,179–185.

Wolvin, A. D., & Cohen, S. D. (2012). An inventory of listening competency dimensions. International Journal of Listening, 26 (2), 64-66.

Wust, V. A. (2009). A la recherche des clitiques perdus : The dictogloss as a measure of the comprehension of y and en by L2 learners of French. Canadian Modern Language Review, 65 (3), 471-499.

Yilmaz, Y. (2011). Task effects on focus on form in synchronous computer-mediated communication. Modern Language Journal, 95(1), 115-132.

Zhang, L. J. (2003). Research into Chinese EFL learner strategies: Methods, findings and instructional issues. RELC journal, 34 (3), 284-322.