背景與目的
根據2015年臺灣衛生福利部之統計，攝護腺癌為男性惡性腫瘤發生率的第五名，死亡率為第七名，目前攝護腺癌的病因尚未完全了解，且有關其危險因子的資訊是缺少且不足的，過去研究探討攝護腺癌相關危險因子有很多，其中僅年齡及家族史為明確之危險因子，近年來有國外研究指出環境外源性因素與攝護腺癌發生具有相關性，其中環境因素包含有空氣污染物的曝露，環境中的空氣污染物已經使全球許多疾病發生且造成社會很大的負擔，國際癌症研究機構近年來將空氣污染物列為人類致癌物質之一，故空氣污染物與攝護腺發生之相關議題值得重視，然而，國內尚未有任何關於空氣污染物與攝護腺癌之相關研究發表，為此，本研究利用我國全民健康保險資料庫，來探討長期曝露於空氣污染物中與攝護腺癌發生率之間的相關性。

研究方法
本研究利用族群為基礎的病例對照研究設計來探討長期曝露於空氣污染物與攝護腺癌發生率之相關性。資料來源主要為臺灣1997年至2010年全民健保資料庫，並從中找出2009年男性攝護腺癌新發生個案共5,115人，以及利用「年齡」及「診斷年」為匹配條件選出2009年男性非攝護腺癌個案共20,460人，再與余化龍等學者推估之空氣污染物資料結合再與行政院環境保護署空氣品質監測網之空氣污染物資料結合，來估計研究對象1998年或投保日期至發病日診斷日前或至發病日診斷日前三年之空氣污染物（CO、NOX 、O3、PM10 、PM2.5 及SO2平均曝露濃度，並且依以多變量邏輯斯迴歸模型分析空氣污染物與攝護腺癌發生率之間的相關性。

研究結果
調整年齡、慢性阻塞性肺病、共病症指數、投保金額、都市化程度及空氣污染物後，當空氣污染物一氧化碳CO及氮氧化物NOX之平均曝露濃度增加，會增加罹患攝護腺癌的風險，而增加之風險分別為11%（95% CI=1.05-1.17）及20%（95% CI=1.13-1.28），此外，敏感度分析發現，在同一地區就醫常見上呼吸道疾病者其空氣污染物與攝護腺癌發生之相關性較強，當空氣污染物CO、NOX及O3之平均曝露濃度增加，皆會增加罹患攝護腺癌的風險，而增加之風險分別為13%（95% CI=1.04-1.23）、22%（95% CI=1.11-1.34）及3%（95% CI=0.94-1.12），依研究對象特性之交互作用而言，曝露於北部地區者，其受空氣污染物NOX的影響較大，而曝露於都市化程度為鄉村地區及南部地區者，其對空氣污染物O3較為敏感。

結論與建議
本研究之結果發現長期曝露於高濃度的空氣污染物CO及NOX ，會增加罹患攝護腺癌的風險，因此本研究結果可提供相關環保相關單位參考，以加強監控與限制空氣污染物的來源與排放，另提供衛生相關單位，為了控制攝護腺癌的發生，應加強宣導民眾對於空氣污染物與健康之影響的認知，並降低其空氣污染的曝露，且應針對敏感族群提供攝護腺癌的篩檢及針對攝護腺癌高危險族群進行追蹤，以降低其他可能使攝護腺癌發生之危險因子的曝露。

Objectives
According to statistics from the Ministry of Health and Welfare, prostate cancer is the fifth highest in incidence rate and seventh in mortality rate for male malignant tumor in Taiwan. Currently the causes of prostate cancer are not clearly and there is a paucity of information on risk factors for prostate cancer. More pPrevious studies have been investigated the risk factors for prostate cancer and age and family history of prostate cancer have been shown consistenly to increase risk of prostate cancer.that clear signal has emerged such as age and family history of prostate cancer. In addition, one of the foreign study indicated that environmental and exogenous factors such as air pollution do correlate with increased risks of prostate cancer such as air pollution. Air pollution of environmental is thought to cause a substantial global burden of disease and the International Agency for Research on Cancer defined that air pollution is one of the carcinogen for human. Therefore, the issues about effects of air pollution on prostate cancer can not be ignored. However, the studies about on air pollution and incidence of prostate cancer in Taiwan have never been releasedinvestigated. Therefore, our study is to examine the relationship between long-term exposure to air pollution and the incidence of prostate cancer in Taiwan using the National Health Insurance Research Database.

Methods
We conducted a population-based case-control study to investigate associations between long-term exposure to air pollution and the incidence of prostate cancer. Based on data extracted from the National Health Insurance Research Database from 1997 to 2010, we identified 5,115 incident prostate cacer cases and matching age and diagnosis of year to select 20,460 of none prostate cancer controls in 2009. Concentrations of air pollution（CO、NOX 、O3 、PM10 、PM2.5 and SO2 ）were modeled based on air quality data. Mean concentrations estimates of exposure were estimated based on the clinic location where the participant most frequently sought treatment for acute upper respiratory infections (ICD-9-CM code 460)calculated for subjects’s area from 1998 or date of insure to diagnosedindex date and to three years before index date. We used multivariate logistic regression models to analysis effects of air pollution on incidence of prostate cancer.

Results
After adjusting for age, COPD, charlson comorbidity index, insured amount, urbanization level and air pollution, the odds ratio of prostate caner incidence increased by 11%（95% CI=1.05-1.17）and 20%（95% CI=1.13-1.28）per interquartile increase in average CO and NOX exposure. In addition, Associations were stronger for subjects who cured common respiratory diseases in the same area, the odds ratio of prostate caner incidence increased by 13%（95% CI=1.04-1.23）, 22%（95% CI=1.11-1.34）and 3%（95% CI=0.94-1.12）per interquartile increase in average CO, NOX and O3 exposure. Considering interaction with subjects characteristics, we fonund stronger effects of NOX among subjects who exposure resident in north area, and subjects who exposure resident in rural area and sourth area are sensitive to O3 effects.

Conclusions
We observed that long-term exposure to air pollution was associated with prostate cancer risk, especially for CO and NOX. It Our results provides evidence for environmental protection administration to monitor and control emissions of air pollution. In addition, our resultsIn order to control the incidence of prostate cancer, it also provides the Ministry of Health and Welfare to awareness advocacy to enhance the people's knowledge about health effects of air pollution and provide the screening of prostate cancer and follow-up people who have higher risk of prostate cancer to reduce that expose to another risk factors of prostate cancer.

中文摘要 I
Abstract II
表目錄 IV
圖目錄 V
第一章 緒論 1
第一節 研究背景與動機 1
第二節 問題陳述 5
第三節 研究目的及研究問題與假設 7
第四節 研究之重要性 8
第二章 文獻探討 9
第一節 攝護腺癌之流行病學及其危險因子 9
第二節 空氣污染物之特性與污染源 33
第三節 空氣污染物與癌症之相關 38
第四節 空氣污染物與攝護腺癌之相關 55
第五節 空氣污染物與攝護腺癌之可能生物機制 60
第六節 文獻總結 63
第三章 研究方法 64
第一節 研究架構 64
第二節 研究設計 66
第三節 研究對象 67
第四節 研究資料來源及變項的操作型定義 69
第五節 研究資料處理過程 84
第六節 統計分析 96
第四章 研究結果 99
第一節 研究對象特性及各縣市攝護腺癌發生率分佈 99
第二節 六種空氣污染物之相關性 102
第三節 空氣污染物曝露與攝護腺癌發生之相關性 106
第四節 依研究對象特性分層分析空氣污染物曝露與攝護腺癌發生之相關性 116
第五章 討論與建議 134
第一節 研究結果總結和討論 134
第二節 研究之優點、限制及建議 143
第三節 研究結果之應用 146
參考資料 147
(一) 中文部分 147
(二) 英文部分 149
附錄 167

中文部分
全民健康保險研究資料庫（2015）・服務簡介・取自http://nhird.nhri.org.tw/brief_01.htm
行政院主計處統計標準分類（2015）・統計地區標準分類-區域分類・取自http://www.dgbas.gov.tw/public/data/dgbas03/bs1/統計地區標準分類/第1次修訂版(82年7月)/區域分類.pdf

朱育增、吳肖琪（2010）・回顧與探討次級資料適用之共病測量方法・臺灣公共衛生雜誌，29（1），8-21。

杜政榮、李中一、劉希平（2009）・環境污染與健康・臺北市：空大

紀妙青、謝依倫、王玉純（2010）・臺灣空氣污染與呼吸道疾病健康風險・長庚科技學刊・（13），1-16・doi:10.6192/cgust.2010.12.13.1。

國家衛生研究院（2003）・攝護腺（前列腺）癌診治共識・取自http://www.nhri.org.tw/NHRI_ADM/userfiles/file/tcog/prostate.pdf

國家環境毒物研究中心（2015）・何謂粒狀物質・取自http://nehrc.nhri.org.tw/toxic/ref/何謂粒狀物質.pdf

陳玟伶（2009）・臺灣地區精神疾病住院病患之再住院率研究（未發表之碩士論文）・國立臺北護理健康大學，臺北市，臺灣。

張章堂、沈百淳、李承志、余佳蘋、駱勇全、李雅文・（2009）・ 結合可見光光觸媒單元與活性碳單元處理車內VOCs之研究・國立宜蘭大學工程學刊（5），115-130・doi:10.6176/bce.2009.05.18

曾光毅（2013）・前列腺癌的預防與治療・家庭醫學與基層醫療，28（8），208-216。

童俊榮、劉志光（2013）・應用資料採礦技術分析臺灣健保資料庫－以攝護腺癌病人為例・Journal of Data Analysis，8（5），67-83。

詹俊彥、劉建良、陳英貞（2011）・攝護腺癌之診斷與治療・家庭醫學與基層醫療，26（5），201-208。

彰化醫界聯盟（2011）・PM2.5 與健康說明手冊・取自http://www.slideshare.net/zoayzoay/2-pm-2597x210

蒲永孝（1999）・臺灣地區之前列腺癌・臺灣醫學，3（2），186-195・ doi:10.6320/fjm.1999.3(2).07。

衛生福利部（2007）・中華民國92年癌症登記報告・取自http://tcr.cph.ntu.edu.tw/uploadimages/Y92-ALL.pdf

衛生福利部（2015）・中華民國101年癌症登記報告・取自http://www.hpa.gov.tw/Bhpnet/Portal/File/StatisticsFile/201504290915220898/101年癌症登記年報.pdf

衛生福利部（2015）・中華民國103年死因統計年報・取自http://www.mohw.gov.tw/CHT/DOS/Statistic.aspx?f_list_no=312&fod_list_no=5488

劉介宇、洪永泰、莊義利、陳怡如、翁文舜、劉季鑫、梁賡義 (2006) ・臺灣地區鄉鎮市區發展類型應用於大型健康調查抽樣設計之研究・健康管理學刊，4 （1），1-22。

劉俐伶（2014）・探討空氣污染曝露與攝護腺癌之間的相關性:以族群為基礎的病例對照研究（未發表之碩士論文）・國立臺北護理健康大學，臺北市，臺灣。

鄭福田、劉西平、劉遵賢（2011）・空氣污染（修訂版）・臺北市：高立圖書

盧星華、張彰琦、邱文祥、劉志光、柯明中、陳修聖、⋯陳證文（2012）・臺北市攝護腺癌之篩檢分析・北市醫學雜誌，9（4），359-373。doi:10.6200/tcmj.2012.9.4.06。

環境保護署（2015）・空氣品質監測網・取自http://taqm.epa.gov.tw/taqm/tw/default.aspx

英文部分
Armstrong, B., & Doll, R. (1975). Environmental factors and cancer incidence and mortality in different countries, with special reference to dietary practices. International Journal of Cancer, 15(4), 617-631.

Abramson, J. L., & Vaccarino, V. (2002). Relationship between physical activity and inflammation among apparently healthy middle-aged and older US adults. Arch Intern Med, 162(11), 1286-1292.

Ambrosini, G. L., De Klerk, N. H., Fritschi, L., Mackerras, D., & Musk, B. (2008). Fruit, vegetable, vitamin A intakes, and prostate cancer risk. Prostate Cancer and Prostatic Diseases, 11(1), 61-66. doi:10.1038/sj.pcan.4500979

American Cancer Society. (2015). Cancer Facts & Figures 2015. Retrieved from http://www.cancer.org/research/cancerfactsstatistics/cancerfactsfigures2015/# .

Breslow N., Cham C. E., Dhom G. (1977). Latent carcinoma of the Prostate at autoPsy in seven areas. International Journal of Cancer, 20, 680-8.

Bako, G., Smith, E. S., Hanson, J., & Dewar, R. (1982). The geographical distribution of high cadmium concentrations in the environment and prostate cancer in Alberta. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 73(2), 92-94.

Beeson, W. L., Abbey, D. E., & Knutsen, S. F. (1998). Long-term concentrations of ambient air pollutants and incident lung cancer in California adults: results from the AHSMOG study.Adventist Health Study on Smog. Environmental Health Perspectives, 106(12), 813-822

Bairati, I., Meyer, F., Fradet, Y., & Moore, L. (1998). Dietary fat and advanced prostate cancer. Journal of Urology, 159(4), 1271-1275.

Brown, D. A., & Delzell, E. (2000). Motor vehicle manufacturing and prostate cancer. Amerian Journal of Industrail Medicine, 38(1), 59-70.

Bruner, D. W., Moore, D., Parlanti, A., Dorgan, J., & Engstrom, P. (2003). Relative risk of prostate cancer for men with affected relatives: systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Cancer, 107(5), 797-803. doi:10.1002/ijc.11466

Bostwick, D. G., Burke, H. B., Djakiew, D., Euling, S., Ho, S. M., Landolph, J.,..Timms, B. (2004). Human prostate cancer risk factors. Cancer, 101(10 Suppl), 2371-2490. doi:10.1002/cncr.20408

Brook, R. D., Franklin, B., Cascio, W., Hong, Y., Howard, G., Lipsett, M.,… Tager, I. (2004). Air pollution and cardiovascular disease: a statement for healthcare professionals from the Expert Panel on Population and Prevention Science of the American Heart Association. Circulation, 109(21), 2655-2671. doi:10.1161/01.cir.0000128587.30041.c8

Bidoli, E., Talamini, R., Bosetti, C., Negri, E., Maruzzi, D., Montella, M.,… La Vecchia, C. (2005). Macronutrients, fatty acids, cholesterol and prostate cancer risk. Annals of Oncology, 16(1), 152-157. doi:10.1093/annonc/mdi010

Bonner, M. R., Han, D. W., Nie, L., Rogerson, P., Vena, J. E., Muti, P., . . . Freudenheim, J. L. (2005). Breast cancer risk and exposure in early life to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using total suspended particulates as a proxy measure. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 14(1), 53-60.

Beelen, R., Hoek, G., van den Brandt, P. A., Goldbohm, R. A., Fischer, P., Schouten, L. J., …Brunekreef, B. (2008). Long-term effects of traffic-related air pollution on mortality in a Dutch cohort (NLCS-AIR study). Environment Health Perspective, 116(2), 196-202. doi:10.1289/ehp.10767

Band, P. R., Abanto, Z., Bert, J., Lang, B., Fang, R., Gallagher, R. P., & Le, N. D. (2011). Prostate cancer risk and exposure to pesticides in British Columbia farmers. Prostate, 71(2), 168-183. doi:10.1002/pros.21232

Brauer, M., Amann, M., Burnett, R. T., Cohen, A., Dentener, F., Ezzati, M.,…Thurston, G. D. (2012). Exposure assessment for estimation of the global burden of disease attributable to outdoor air pollution. Environment Science Technology, 46(2), 652-660. doi:10.1021/es2025752

Brawley, O. W. (2012). Prostate cancer epidemiology in the United States. World Journal of Urology, 30(2), 195-200. doi:10.1007/s00345-012-0824-2

Bashir, M. N., Ahmad, M. R., & Malik, A. (2014). Risk Factors of Prostate Cancer: a Case-control Study in Faisalabad, Pakistan. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, 15(23), 10237-10240. doi:10.7314/apjcp.2014.15.23.10237

Beelen, R., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Stafoggia, M., Andersen, Z. J., Weinmayr, G., Hoffmann, B., …Hoek, G. (2014). Effects of long-term exposure to air pollution on natural-cause mortality: an analysis of 22 European cohorts within the multicentre ESCAPE project. Lancet, 383(9919), 785-795. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(13)62158-3

Bashir, M. N. (2015). Epidemiology of Prostate Cancer. Asian Pacific Journal Cancer Prevention, 16(13), 5137-5141.

Bonn, S. E., Sjolander, A., Lagerros, Y. T., Wiklund, F., Stattin, P., Holmberg, E.,…Balter, K. (2015). Physical activity and survival among men diagnosed with prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev, 24(1), 57-64. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-14-0707

Coughlin, S. S., Neaton, J. D., & Sengupta, A. (1996). Cigarette smoking as a predictor of death from prostate cancer in 348,874 men screened for the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. American Journal of Epidemiology, 143(10), 1002-1006.

Chan, J. M., Stampfer, M. J., & Giovannucci, E. L. (1998). What causes prostate cancer? A brief summary of the epidemiology. Seminars in Cancer Biolog, 8(4), 263-273.

Cohen, J. H., Kristal, A. R., & Stanford, J. L. (2000). Fruit and vegetable intakes and prostate cancer risk. Journal of National Cancer Institute, 92(1), 61-68.

Chan, J. M., Holick, C. N., Leitzmann, M. F., Rimm, E. B., Willett, W. C., Stampfer, M. J., & Giovannucci, E. L. (2006). Diet after diagnosis and the risk of prostate cancer progression, recurrence, and death (United States). Cancer Causes Control, 17(2), 199-208. doi:10.1007/s10552-005-0413-4

Crowe, F. L., Key, T. J., Appleby, P. N., Travis, R. C., Overvad, K., Jakobsen, M. U., … Riboli, E. (2008). Dietary fat intake and risk of prostate cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition.The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 87(5), 1405-1413.

Chen, H., Goldberg, M. S., & Villeneuve, P. J. (2008). A systematic review of the relation between long-term exposure to ambient air pollution and chronic diseases. Reviews on Environmental Health, 23(4), 243-297.

Crouse, D. L., Goldberg, M. S., Ross, N. A., Chen, H., & Labreche, F. (2010). Postmenopausal breast cancer is associated with exposure to traffic-related air pollution in Montreal, Canada: a case-control study. Environmental Health Perspectives, 118(11), 1578-1583. doi:10.1289/ehp.1002221

Cancer Council of Australia (2011). Prostate cancer. Retrieved from http://www.cancer.org.au/aboutcancer/cancertypes/ prostatecancer.htm.

Cao, Y., & Gao, H. (2012). Prevalence and causes of air pollution and lung cancer in Xuanwei City and Fuyuan County, Yunnan Province, China. Frontiers Medicine, 6(2), 217-220. doi:10.1007/s11684-012-0192-8

Carey, I. M., Atkinson, R. W., Kent, A. J., van Staa, T., Cook, D. G., & Anderson, H. R. (2013). Mortality associations with long-term exposure to outdoor air pollution in a national English cohort. American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine, 187(11), 1226-1233. doi:10.1164/rccm.201210-1758OC

Cesaroni, G., Badaloni, C., Gariazzo, C., Stafoggia, M., Sozzi, R., Davoli, M., & Forastiere, F. (2013). Long-term exposure to urban air pollution and mortality in a cohort of more than a million adults in Rome. Environment Health Perspective, 121(3), 324-331. doi:10.1289/ehp.1205862

Castro, E., Goh, C., Olmos, D., Saunders, E., Leongamornlert, D., Tymrakiewicz, M.,…Eeles, R. (2013). Germline BRCA mutations are associated with higher risk of nodal involvement, distant metastasis, and poor survival outcomes in prostate cancer. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 31(14), 1748-1757. doi:10.1200/jco.2012.43.1882

Chung, S. D., Liu, S. P., & Lin, H. C. (2013). Association between Prostate Cancer and Urinary Calculi: A Population-Based Study. Plos One, 8(2). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0057743

Chang, E. T., Boffetta, P., Adami, H. O., Cole, P., & Mandel, J. S. (2014). A critical review of the epidemiology of Agent Orange/TCDD and prostate cancer. European Journal of Epidemiology, 29(10), 667-723. doi:10.1007/s10654-014-9931-2

Chang, K.H., Chang, M.Y., Muo, C.H., Wu, T.N., Chen, C.Y., Kao, C.H. (2014). Increased risk of dementia in patients exposed to nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide: a population-based retrospective cohort study. Plos One,9(8).

Castro, E., Goh, C., Leongamornlert, D., Saunders, E., Tymrakiewicz, M., Dadaev, T., . . . Eeles, R. (2015). Effect of BRCA Mutations on Metastatic Relapse and Cause-specific Survival After Radical Treatment for Localised Prostate Cancer. European Urology, 68(2), 186-193. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2014.10.022

Deyo, R. A., Cherkin, D. C., & Ciol, M. A. (1992). Adapting a clinical comorbidity index for use with ICD-9-CM administrative databases. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 45(6), 613-619.

Daniell, H. W. (1995). A worse prognosis for smokers with prostate cancer. Journal of Urology, 154(1), 153-157.

Du, S. F., Shi, L. Y., & He, S. P. (1996). A case-control study of prostate cancer. Zhonghua Liu Xing Bing Xue Za Zhi, 17(6), 343-345.

Dennis, L. K., & Dawson, D. V. (2002). Meta-analysis of measures of sexual activity and prostate cancer. Epidemiology, 13(1), 72-79.

Delzell, E., Brown, D. A., & Matthews, R. (2003). Mortality among hourly motor vehicle manufacturing workers. Journal of Occuputational Environmental Medicine, 45(8), 813-830. doi:10.1097/01.jom.0000079092.95532.49

Dodge, J. L., Mills, P. K., & Riordan, D. G. (2007). Cancer survival in California Hispanic farmworkers, 1988-2001. Journal of Rural Health, 23(1), 33-41. doi:10.1111/j.1748-0361.2006.00065.x

Dimitropoulou, P., Lophatananon, A., Easton, D., Pocock, R., Dearnaley, D. P., Guy, M.,… British Assoc Urological, S. (2009). Sexual activity and prostate cancer risk in men diagnosed at a younger age. BJU International, 103(2), 178-185. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2008.08030.x

Daniyal, M., Siddiqui, Z. A., Akram, M., Asif, H. M., Sultana, S., & Khan, A. (2014). Epidemiology, etiology, diagnosis and treatment of prostate cancer. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, 15(22), 9575-9578.

Dotson, S. J., Howard, M. D., Aung, M., Keenan, J. A., & Jolly, P. E. (2015). The Epidemiology of Prostate Cancer in Western Jamaica: Risk Factors, Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices. West Indian Medical Journal. doi:10.7727/wimj.2014.183

Elghany, N. A., Schumacher, M. C., Slattery, M. L., West, D. W., & Lee, J. S. (1990). Occupation, cadmium exposure, and prostate cancer. Epidemiology, 1(2), 107-115.

Edwards, S. M., & Eeles, R. A. (2004). Unravelling the genetics of prostate cancer. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part C Seminars Medical Genetics, 129c(1), 65-73. doi:10.1002/ajmg.c.30027

Freeman, V. L., Leszczak, J., & Cooper, R. S. (1997). Race and the histologic grade of prostate cancer. Prostate, 30(2), 79-84. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0045(19970201)30:2<79::aid-pros2>3.0.co;2-f

Fleming, L. E., Gomez-Marin, O., Zheng, D., Ma, F. C., & Lee, D. (2003). National health interview survey mortality among US farmers and pesticide applicators. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 43(2), 227-233. doi:10.1002/ajim.10162

Filleul, L., Rondeau, V., Vandentorren, S., Le Moual, N., Cantagrel, A., Annesi-Maesano, I., . . . Baldi, I. (2005). Twenty five year mortality and air pollution: results from the French PAARC survey. Occupational Environment Medicine, 62(7), 453-460. doi:10.1136/oem.2004.014746

Ferlay, J., Shin, H. R., Bray, F., Forman, D., Mathers, C., & Parkin, D. M. (2010). Estimates of worldwide burden of cancer in 2008: GLOBOCAN 2008.

International Journal of Cancer, 127(12), 2893-2917. doi:10.1002/ijc.25516

Fowke, J. H., McLerran, D. F., Gupta, P. C., He, J., Shu, X.-O., Ramadas, K.,…Potter, J. D. (2015). Associations of Body Mass Index, Smoking, and Alcohol Consumption With Prostate Cancer Mortality in the Asia Cohort Consortium. American Journal of Epidemiology, 182(5), 381-389. doi:10.1093/aje/kwv089

Ferlay J, Soerjomataian I, Mathers C et al (2015). Cancer incidence and mortality worldwide: Sources, methods and major patterns in GLOBOCAN, 2012. International Journal of Cancer, 136, 359-86.

Graham, S., Haughey, B., Marshall, J., Priore, R., Byers, T., Rzepka, T., . . . Pontes, J. E. (1983). Diet in the epidemiology of carcinoma of the prostate gland. Jouranl of National Cancer Institute, 70(4), 687-692.

Giovannucci, E., Rimm, E. B., Colditz, G. A., Stampfer, M. J., Ascherio, A., Chute, C. G., & Willett, W. C. (1993). A prospective study of dietary fat and risk of prostate cancer. Joural of the National Cancer Institute, 85(19), 1571-1579.

Gann, P. H., Hennekens, C. H., Sacks, F. M., Grodstein, F., Giovannucci, E. L., & Stampfer, M. J. (1994). Prospective study of plasma fatty acids and risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst, 86(4), 281-286.

Giovannucci, E., Ascherio, A., Rimm, E. B., Stampfer, M. J., Colditz, G. A., & Willett, W. C. (1995). Intake of carotenoids and retinol in relation to risk of prostate cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 87(23), 1767-1776. doi:10.1093/jnci/87.23.1767

Giovannucci, E., Rimm, E. B., Wolk, A., Ascherio, A., Stampfer, M. J., Colditz, G. A., & Willett, W. C. (1998). Calcium and fructose intake in relation to risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Research, 58(3), 442-447.

Geffken, D. F., Cushman, M., Burke, G. L., Polak, J. F., Sakkinen, P. A., & Tracy, R. P. (2001). Association between physical activity and markers of inflammation in a healthy elderly population. American Journal of Epidemiology, 153(3), 242-250.

Ganesh, B., Saoba, S. L., Sarade, M. N., & Pinjari, S. V. (2011). Risk factors for prostate cancer: An hospital-based case-control study from Mumbai, India. Indian Journal of Urology, 27(3), 345-350. doi:10.4103/0970-1591.85438

Gross, M. E. (2013). Prostate Cancer : age is nothing but a number. Nature Reviews Urology, 10(12), 683-684. doi:10.1038/nrurol.2013.265

Guo, Y. M., Zeng, H. M., Zheng, R. S., Li, S. S., Barnett, A. G., Zhang, S. W., . . . Williams, G. (2016). The association between lung cancer incidence and ambient air pollution in China: A spatiotemporal analysis. Environmental Research, 144, 60-65. doi:10.1016/j.envres.2015.11.004

Haenszel, W., & Kurihara, M. (1968). Studies of Japanese migrants. I. Mortality from cancer and other diseases among Japanese in the United States. Journal of National Cancer Institute, 40(1), 43-68.

Hsing, A. W., McLaughlin, J. K., Schuman, L. M., Bjelke, E., Gridley, G., Wacholder, S., …Blot, W. J. (1990). Diet, tobacco use, and fatal prostate cancer: results from the Lutheran Brotherhood Cohort Study. Cancer Research, 50(21), 6836-6840.

Hsing, A. W., McLaughlin, J. K., Hrubec, Z., Blot, W. J., & Fraumeni, J. F., Jr. (1991). Tobacco use and prostate cancer: 26-year follow-up of US veterans. American Journal of Epidemiology, 133(5), 437-441.

Haas, G. P., & Sakr, W. A. (1997). Epidemiology of prostate cancer. Ca-a Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 47(5), 273-287.

Hayes, R. B., Pottern, L. M., Strickler, H., Rabkin, C., Pope, V., Swanson, G. M.,...Fraumeni, J. F., Jr. (2000). Sexual behaviour, STDs and risks for prostate cancer. British Journal of Cancer, 82(3), 718-725. doi:10.1054/bjoc.1999.0986

Huncharek, M., Haddock, K. S., Reid, R., & Kupelnick, B. (2010). Smoking as a risk factor for prostate cancer: a meta-analysis of 24 prospective cohort studies. American Journal of Public Health, 100(4), 693-701. doi:10.2105/ajph.2008.150508

Hales, S., Blakely, T., & Woodward, A. (2012). Air pollution and mortality in New Zealand: cohort study. Journal of Epidemiology Community Health, 66(5), 468-473. doi:10.1136/jech.2010.112490

Hung, L. J., Chan, T. F., Wu, C. H., Chiu, H. F., & Yang, C. Y. (2012). Traffic air pollution and risk of death from ovarian cancer in Taiwan: fine particulate matter (PM2.5) as a proxy marker. Jounal of Toxicology Environmental Health,Part A, 75(3), 174-182. doi:10.1080/15287394.2012.641200

Hystad, P., Demers, P. A., Johnson, K. C., Carpiano, R. M., & Brauer, M. (2013). Long-term residential exposure to air pollution and lung cancer risk. Epidemiology, 24(5), 762-772. doi:10.1097/EDE.0b013e3182949ae7

Hoek, G., Krishnan, R. M., Beelen, R., Peters, A., Ostro, B., Brunekreef, B., & Kaufman, J. D. (2013). Long-term air pollution exposure and cardio- respiratory mortality: a review. Environ Health, 12(1), 43. doi:10.1186/1476-069x-12-43

Heinrich, J., Thiering, E., Rzehak, P., Kramer, U., Hochadel, M., Rauchfuss, K. M.,… Wichmann, H. E. (2013). Long-term exposure to NO2 and PM10 and all-cause and cause-specific mortality in a prospective cohort of women. Occupational Environment Medicine, 70(3), 179-186. doi:10.1136/oemed-2012-100876

Huo, Q., Zhang, N., Wang, X., Jiang, L., Ma, T., & Yang, Q. (2013). Effects of ambient particulate matter on human breast cancer: is xenogenesis responsible? Plos One, 8(10), e76609. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0076609

Johns, L. E., & Houlston, R. S. (2003). A systematic review and meta-analysis of familial prostate cancer risk. BJU International, 91(9), 789-794.

Jarvholm, B., & Silverman, D. (2003). Lung cancer in heavy equipment operators and truck drivers with diesel exhaust exposure in the construction industry. Occupational and Environental Medicine, 60(7), 516-520.

John, K., Ragavan, N., Pratt, M. M., Singh, P. B., Al-Buheissi, S., Matanhelia, S. S., . . . Martin, F. L. (2009). Quantification of phase I/II metabolizing enzyme gene expression and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA adduct levels in human prostate. Prostate, 69(5), 505-519. doi:10.1002/pros.20898

Kolonel, L. N., Hankin, J. H., Lee, J., Chu, S. Y., Nomura, A. M., & Hinds, M. W. (1981). Nutrient intakes in relation to cancer incidence in Hawaii. British Journal of Cancer, 44(3), 332-339.

Krstev, S., Baris, D., Stewart, P. A., Hayes, R. B., Blair, A., & Dosemeci, M. (1998a). Risk for prostate cancer by occupation and industry: a 24-state death certificate study. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 34(5), 413-420.
Krstev, S., Baris, D., Stewart, P., Dosemeci, M., Swanson, G. M., Greenberg, R. S., . . . Hayes, R. B. (1998b). Occupational risk factors and prostate cancer in U.S. blacks and whites. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 34(5), 421-430.

Kenfield, S. A., Stampfer, M. J., Giovannucci, E., & Chan, J. M. (2011). Physical activity and survival after prostate cancer diagnosis in the health professionals follow-up study. Journal of Clinical Oncology, 29(6), 726-732. doi:10.1200/jco.2010.31.5226

Katanoda, K., Sobue, T., Satoh, H., Tajima, K., Suzuki, T., Nakatsuka, H., …Three-Prefecture Cohort Study, G. (2011). An Association Between Long-Term Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution and Mortality From Lung Cancer and Respiratory Diseases in Japan. Journal of Epidemiology, 21(2), 132-143. doi:10.2188/jea.JE20100098

Kenfield, S. A., DuPre, N., Richman, E. L., Stampfer, M. J., Chan, J. M., & Giovannucci, E. L. (2014). Mediterranean diet and prostate cancer risk and mortality in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study. European Urology, 65(5), 887-894. doi:10.1016/j.eururo.2013.08.009

Loomis, D., Grosse, Y., Lauby-Secretan, B., El Ghissassi, F., Bouvard, V., Benbrahim-Tallaa, L.,… Straif, K. (2013). The carcinogenicity of outdoor air pollution. Lancet Oncology, 14(13), 1262-1263.

Lee, P. C., Roberts, J. M., Catov, J. M., Talbott, E. O., & Ritz, B. (2013). First Trimester Exposure to Ambient Air Pollution, Pregnancy Complications and Adverse Birth Outcomes in Allegheny County, PA. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 17(3), 545-555. doi:10.1007/s10995-012-1028-5

Lichtensztajn, D. Y., Gomez, S. L., Sieh, W., Chung, B. I., Cheng, I., & Brooks, J. D. (2014). Prostate cancer risk profiles of Asian-American men: disentangling the effects of immigration status and race/ethnicity. Journal of Urology, 191(4), 952-956. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2013.10.075

Mills, P. K., Beeson, W. L., Phillips, R. L., & Fraser, G. E. (1989). Cohort study of diet, lifestyle, and prostate cancer in Adventist men. Cancer, 64(3), 598-604.

McDonnell, W. F., Nishino-Ishikawa, N., Petersen, F. F., Chen, L. H., & Abbey, D. E. (2000). Relationships of mortality with the fine and coarse fractions of long-term ambient PM10 concentrations in nonsmokers. Journal Exposure Analysis Environment Epidemiology, 10(5), 427-436.

Mills, P. K., & Yang, R. (2003). Prostate cancer risk in California farm workers. Journal of Occupational Environmental Medicine, 45(3), 249-258.

McCann, S. E., Ambrosone, C. B., Moysich, K. B., Brasure, J., Marshall, J. R., Freudenheim, J. L., … Graham, S. (2005). Intakes of selected nutrients, foods, and phytochemicals and prostate cancer risk in western New York. Nutrition and Cancer, 53(1), 33-41. doi:10.1207/s15327914nc5301_4

Meng, H., Hu, W., Chen, Z., & Shen, Y. (2014). Fruit and vegetable intake and prostate cancer risk: A meta-analysis. Asia-Pacific Journal of Clinical Oncology, 10(2), 133-140. doi:10.1111/ajco.12067

Nomura, A. M., & Kolonel, L. N. (1991). Prostate cancer: a current perspective. Epidemiologic Reviews, 13, 200-227.

Nadon, L., Siemiatycki, J., Dewar, R., Krewski, D., & Gerin, M. (1995). Cancer risk due to occupational exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Amarican Journal of Industrial Medicine, 28(3), 303-324.

Nafstad, P., Haheim, L. L., Oftedal, B., Gram, F., Holme, I., Hjermann, I., & Leren, P. (2003). Lung cancer and air pollution: a 27 year follow up of 16 209 Norwegian men. Thorax, 58(12), 1071-1076. doi:10.1136/thorax.58.12.1071

Nafstad, P., Haheim, L. L., Wisloff, T., Gram, F., Oftedal, B., Holme, I., …Leren, P. (2004). Urban air pollution and mortality in a cohort of Norwegian men. Environ Health Perspect, 112(5), 610-615.

Negri, E., Pelucchi, C., Talamini, R., Montella, M., Gallus, S., Bosetti, C., . . . La Vecchia, C. (2005). Family history of cancer and the risk of prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia. International Journal of Cancer, 114(4), 648-652. doi:10.1002/ijc.20755

Nie, J., Beyea, J., Bonner, M. R., Han, D., Vena, J. E., Rogerson, P.,…Freudenheim, J. L. (2007). Exposure to traffic emissions throughout life and risk of breast cancer: the Western New York Exposures and Breast Cancer (WEB) study. Cancer Causes & Control, 18(9), 947-955. doi:10.1007/s10552-007-9036-2
Oishi, K., Okada, K., Yoshida, O., Yamabe, H., Ohno, Y., Hayes, R. B.,… Boyle, P. (1990). A case-control study of prostatic cancer in Kyoto, Japan: sexual risk factors. Prostate, 17(4), 269-279.

Pienta, K. J., Demers, R., Hoff, M., Kau, T. Y., Montie, J. E., & Severson, R. K. (1995). Effect of age and race on the survival of men with prostate-cancer in the metropolitan detroit tricounty area 1973 to1987. Urology, 45(1), 93-101. doi:10.1016/s0090-4295(95)96996-9

Parent, M. E., & Siemiatycki, J. (2001). Occupation and prostate cancer. Epidemiologic Reviews, 23(1), 138-143.

Poschl, U. (2005). Atmospheric aerosols: Composition, transformation, climate and health effects. Angewandte Chemie-International Edition, 44(46), 7520-7540. doi:10.1002/anie.200501122

Park, S. Y., Murphy, S. P., Wilkens, L. R., Henderson, B. E., & Kolonel, L. N. (2007). Fat and meat intake and prostate cancer risk: the multiethnic cohort study. Internationl Journal of Cancer, 121(6), 1339-1345. doi:10.1002/ijc.22805

Pourmand, G., Salem, S., Mehrsai, A., Lotfi, M., Amirzargar, M. A., Mazdak, H.,… Jahani, Y. (2007). The risk factors of prostate cancer: A multicentric case-control study in Iran. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention, 8(3), 422-428.

Puett, R. C., Hart, J. E., Yanosky, J. D., Paciorek, C., Schwartz, J., Suh, H., . . . Laden, F. (2009). Chronic fine and coarse particulate exposure, mortality, and coronary heart disease in the Nurses' Health Study. Environmental Health Perspectives, 117(11), 1697-1701. doi:10.1289/ehp.0900572

Parker, P. M., Rice, K. R., Sterbis, J. R., Chen, Y., Cullen, J., McLeod, D. G., & Brassell, S. A. (2011). Prostate Cancer in Men Less Than the Age of 50: A Comparison of Race and Outcomes. Urology, 78(1), 110-115. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2010.12.046

Pratt, M. M., John, K., MacLean, A. B., Afework, S., Phillips, D. H., & Poirier, M. C. (2011). Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) exposure and DNA adduct semi-quantitation in archived human tissues. Internationl Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(7), 2675-2691. doi:10.3390/ijerph8072675

Pettersson, A., Kasperzyk, J. L., Kenfield, S. A., Richman, E. L., Chan, J. M., Willett, W. C., … Giovannucci, E. L. (2012). Milk and dairy consumption among men with prostate cancer and risk of metastases and prostate cancer death. Cancer Epidemiology & Biomarkers Prevention, 21(3), 428-436. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-11-1004

Parent, M. E., Goldberg, M. S., Crouse, D. L., Ross, N. A., Chen, H., Valois, M. F., & Liautaud, A. (2013). Traffic-related air pollution and prostate cancer risk: a case-control study in Montreal, Canada. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 70(7), 511-518. doi:10.1136/oemed-2012-101211

Puett, R. C., Hart, J. E., Yanosky, J. D., Spiegelman, D., Wang, M. L., Fisher, J. A., . . . Laden, F. (2014). Particulate Matter Air Pollution Exposure, Distance to Road, and Incident Lung Cancer in the Nurses' Health Study Cohort. Environmental Health Perspectives, 122(9), 926-932. doi:10.1289/ehp.1307490

Rodriguez, C., Calle, E. E., MiracleMcMahill, H. L., Tatham, L. M., Wingo, P. A., Thun, M. J., & Heath, C. W. (1997). Family history and risk of fatal prostate cancer. Epidemiology, 8(6), 653-657. doi:10.1097/00001648-199710000-00007

Robbins, A. S., Whittemore, A. S., & Van Den Eeden, S. K. (1998). Race, prostate cancer survival, and membership in a large health maintenance organization. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 90(13), 986-990. doi:10.1093/jnci/90.13.986

Rohrmann, S., Genkinger, J. M., Burke, A., Helzlsouer, K. J., Comstock, G. W., Alberg, A. J., & Platz, E. A. (2007). Smoking and risk of fatal prostate cancer in a prospective U.S. study. Urology, 69(4), 721-725. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2006.12.020

Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Andersen, Z. J., Hvidberg, M., Jensen, S. S., Ketzel, M., Sorensen, M., . . . Tjonneland, A. (2011). Air pollution from traffic and cancer incidence: a Danish cohort study. Environmental Health, 10. doi:10.1186/1476-069x-10-67

Raymundo, E. M., Rice, K. R., Chen, Y., Zhao, J., & Brassell, S. A. (2011). Prostate cancer in Asian Americans: incidence, management and outcomes in an equal access healthcare system. BJU International, 107(8), 1216-1222. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2010.09685.x

Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Andersen, Z. J., Jensen, S. S., Ketzel, M., Sorensen, M., Hansen, J.,… Overvad, K. (2012). Traffic air pollution and mortality from cardiovascular disease and all causes: a Danish cohort study. Environment Health, 11, 60. doi:10.1186/1476-069x-11-60

Richman, E. L., Carroll, P. R., & Chan, J. M. (2012). Vegetable and fruit intake after diagnosis and risk of prostate cancer progression. International Journal of Cancer, 131(1), 201-210. doi:10.1002/ijc.26348

Richman, E. L., Kenfield, S. A., Chavarro, J. E., Stampfer, M. J., Giovannucci, E. L., Willett, W. C., & Chan, J. M. (2013). Fat Intake After Diagnosis and Risk of Lethal Prostate Cancer and All-Cause Mortality. Jama Internal Medicine, 173(14), 1318-1326. doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.6536

Reding, K. W., Young, M. T., Szpiro, A. A., Han, C. J., DeRoo, L. A., Weinberg, C., . . . Sandler, D. P. (2015). Breast Cancer Risk in Relation to Ambient Air Pollution Exposure at Residences in the Sister Study Cohort. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 24(12), 1907-1909. doi:10.1158/1055-9965.epi-15-0787

Seidler, A., Heiskel, H., Bickeboller, R., & Elsner, G. (1998). Association between diesel exposure at work and prostate cancer. Scand J Work Environ Health, 24(6), 486-494.

Sasagawa, I., & Nakada, T. (2001). Epidemiology of prostatic cancer in East Asia. Arch Androl, 47(3), 195-201. doi:10.1080/014850101753145906

Settimi, L., Masina, A., Andrion, A., & Axelson, O. (2003). Prostate cancer and exposure to pesticides in agricultural settings. International Journal of Cancer, 104(4), 458-461. doi:10.1002/ijc.10955

Schwartz, K., Powell, I. J., Underwood, W., III, George, J., Yee, C., & Banerjee, M. (2009). Interplay of Race, Socioeconomic Status, and Treatment on Survival of Patients With Prostate Cancer. Urology, 74(6), 1296-1302. doi:10.1016/j.urology.2009.02.058

Singh, A. A., Jones, L. W., Antonelli, J. A., Gerber, L., Calloway, E. E., Shuler, K. H., …Banez, L. L. (2013). Association between exercise and primary incidence of prostate cancer: does race matter? Cancer, 119(7), 1338-1343. doi:10.1002/cncr.27791

Siegel, R. L., Miller, K. D., & Jemal, A. (2015). Cancer Statistics, 2015. CA-A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 65(1), 5-29. doi:10.3322/caac.21254

Thune, I., & Lund, E. (1994). Physical activity and the risk of prostate and testicular cancer: a cohort study of 53,000 Norwegian men. Cancer Causes Control, 5(6), 549-556.

Thompson, D., & Easton, D. (2001). Variation in cancer risks, by mutation position, in BRCA2 mutation carriers. American Journal of Human Genetics, 68(2), 410-419. doi:10.1086/318181

Thompson, D., & Easton, D. F. (2002). Cancer Incidence in BRCA1 mutation carriers. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 94(18), 1358-1365.

Tseng, M., Breslow, R. A., Graubard, B. I., & Ziegler, R. G. (2005). Dairy, calcium, and vitamin D intakes and prostate cancer risk in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Epidemiologic Follow-up Study cohort. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 81(5), 1147-1154.

Turner, M. C., Krewski, D., Pope, C. A., 3rd, Chen, Y., Gapstur, S. M., & Thun, M. J. (2011). Long-term ambient fine particulate matter air pollution and lung cancer in a large cohort of never-smokers. American Journal of Respiratory Critical Care Medicine, 184(12), 1374-1381. doi:10.1164/rccm.201106-1011OC

Torre, L. A., Bray, F., Siegel, R. L., Ferlay, J., Lortet-Tieulent, J., & Jemal, A. (2015). Global cancer statistics, 2012. CA-A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 65(2), 87-108. doi:10.3322/caac.21262

Tao, Z. Q., Shi, A. M., Wang, K. X., & Zhang, W. D. (2015). Epidemiology of prostate cancer: current status. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences, 19(5), 805-812.

Umesawa, M., Iso, H., Mikami, K., Kubo, T., Suzuki, K., Watanabe, Y., . . . Tamakoshi, A. (2014). Relationship between vegetable and carotene intake and risk of prostate cancer: the JACC study. British Journal of Cancer, 110(3), 792-796. doi:10.1038/bjc.2013.685

United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2015). What Are the Six Common Air Pollutants?. Retrieved from http://www3.epa.gov/ozonepollution/
Veierod, M. B., Laake, P., & Thelle, D. S. (1997). Dietary fat intake and risk of prostate cancer: a prospective study of 25,708 Norwegian men. International Journal of Cancer, 73(5), 634-638.

Vandergulden, J. W. J., Kolk, J. J., & Verbeek, A. L. M. (1995). Work environment and prostate cancer risk. Prostate, 27(5), 250-257. doi:10.1002/pros.2990270504

Winkelstein, W., Jr., & Kantor, S. (1969). Prostatic cancer: relationship to suspended particulate air pollution. American Journal of Public Health Nations Health, 59(7), 1134-1138.

West, D. W., Slattery, M. L., Robison, L. M., French, T. K., & Mahoney, A. W. (1991). Adult dietary intake and prostate cancer risk in Utah: a case-control study with special emphasis on aggressive tumors. Cancer Causes Control, 2(2), 85-94.

Waalkes, M. P., & Rehm, S. (1994). Cadmium and prostate cancer. Journal of Toxicology Environmental Health, 43(3), 251-269. doi:10.1080/15287399409531920
Wannamethee, S. G., Lowe, G. D., Whincup, P. H., Rumley, A., Walker, M., & Lennon, L. (2002). Physical activity and hemostatic and inflammatory variables in elderly men. Circulation, 105(15), 1785-1790.

Wallstrom, P., Bjartell, A., Gullberg, B., Olsson, H., & Wirfalt, E. (2007). A prospective study on dietary fat and incidence of prostate cancer (Malmo, Sweden). Cancer Causes Control, 18(10), 1107-1121. doi:10.1007/s10552-007-9050-4

Wei, Y. D., Davis, J., & Bina, W. F. (2012). Ambient air pollution is associated with the increased incidence of breast cancer in US. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 22(1), 12-21. doi:10.1080/09603123.2011.588321

World Health Organization.(2014). Ambient(outdoor) air quality and health. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs313/en/

Xu, X. H., Ha, S. D., Kan, H. D., Hu, H., Curbow, B. A., & Lissaker, C. T. K. (2013). Health effects of air pollution on length of respiratory cancer survival. Bmc Public Health, 13. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-13-800

Xu, C., Han, F.-F., Zeng, X.-T., Liu, T.-Z., Li, S., & Gao, Z.-Y. (2015). Fat Intake Is Not Linked to Prostate Cancer: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis. Plos One, 10(7). doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0131747

Yuspa, S. H., & Poirier, M. C. (1988). Chemical carcinogenesis: from animal models to molecular models in one decade. Advances in Cancer Research, 50, 25-70.

Yu, H.-L., Chen, J.-C., Christakos, G., & Jerrett, M. (2009). BME Estimation of Residential Exposure to Ambient PM(10) and Ozone at Multiple Time Scales. Environmental Health Perspectives, 117(4), 537-544. doi:10.1289/ehp.0800089

Yorifuji, T., Kashima, S., Tsuda, T., Ishikawa-Takata, K., Ohta, T., Tsuruta, K., & Doi, H. (2013). Long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution and the risk of death from hemorrhagic stroke and lung cancer in Shizuoka, Japan. Science of the Total Environment, 443, 397-402. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.10.088

Zeegers, M. P., Friesema, I. H., Goldbohm, R. A., & van den Brandt, P. A. (2004). A prospective study of occupation and prostate cancer risk. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 46(3), 271-279.