臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

此研究調查立體視覺環境中，在近及遠之距離深度下的空間知覺與互動表現。比較因子包含兩種環境情境(真實情境與立體視覺環境)、兩種反應方法(以視覺為基礎以及以記憶為基礎的指向方式)、三種距離深度等級(150,100,及65公分)、及九種目標物位置(三種行距及三種欄距的位置處)。在真實及與其相當的立體視覺情境中，相機視野(field of view)及與以觀察者自身為基礎的距離(egocentric distance)保持一致，而取用三種不同大小的目標球(70, 50, 及30毫米)。十八位受試者參與所有因子組合的空間知覺任務，故每位受試者共需完成108個情境。每個情境中，六台取樣率為120(frames/sec)的紅外線攝影機用以蒐集三度空間位置的資料，包括精確度、距離感知錯誤率(signed error)、移動時間，以及整體表現(throughput)。
結果顯示以觀察者自身為基礎的距離(egocentric distance)在真實情境比在立體視覺環境中更為精確。在立體視覺環境中，三種距離深度下，平均產生10公分高估的狀況。這種高估的問題比起先前研究已有相當的改善。然而，在立體視覺環境的縱向切面(frontal plane)中，距離有被壓縮的狀況。另外，在真實及立體視覺環境下，受試者的移動時間及整體表現則相距不大。
精確度在以視覺為基礎及以記憶為基礎的兩種反應方法下，並無顯著差異。但距離感知錯誤率(signed error)則在以視覺為基礎的反應方法中有較大的高估狀況。陳述方法的使用亦影響了整體的水平及鉛直空間知覺。然而，移動時間及整體表現並無顯著差異。
在立體視覺情境中，精確度、移動時間以及整體表現也受到目標物在不同深度與縱向切面中的位置導向而有所影響。結果顯示，深度知覺受到壓縮於縱向切面中較遠處的目標物而產生較差的精確度。
本研究結論顯示，在先前文獻中常提及的距離低估問題將會因為以視覺或以記憶為基礎的指向方式而有所改善。此發現對於近及遠視野虛擬環境中的互動將有實質顯著意義。也顯示了在立體視覺環境中因為壓縮造成的距離低估問題仍不容小覷。除此之外，更深入的結果追探及工程上的解決方案亦值得加以探究。

關鍵字: 立體視覺顯示; 空間知覺; 物件立體化(Parallax); 虛擬環境; 以視覺為基礎的指向; 以記憶為基礎的指向

In this study, the interaction performances and spatial perceptions in near and far field stereoscopic environments were investigated. Experiment was conducted to compare performances in two environmental conditions (real and stereoscopic) using two response methods (vision-based and memory-based pointing), three parallax/depth levels (150, 100 and 65 cm from the observer), and nine target positions in each depth conditions in three rows and three columns. Consistent with the camera field of view and egocentric distance, three spherical targets, foam balls in real environment and their equivalent in stereoscopic conditions, of varying sizes (70, 50 and 30 mm) were used. Eighteen participants made all combinations of space perception tasks, each completing a total of 108 trials. For each trial, three dimensional position data collected from a marker tracked by motion system composed of six infrared cameras, at sampling rate of 120 Hz, was used to compute accuracy, signed error, movement time, and throughput.
The results confirm egocentric distance estimation was accurate in real world environment, compared to inaccurate perception in stereoscopic displays. The inaccuracy, which was about 10 cm overestimations in all the three depth levels, was relatively better compared to previous studies. However, the perception in frontal plane was greatly compressed in stereoscopic environment. The two environments performed equally well with respect to movement time and throughput.
Comparison of vision-based and memory-based response methods, the result indicated no significant difference on accuracy. Signed error, on the other hand, indicated bigger overestimations in vision-based reporting technique. The overall horizontal and vertical space perceptions were also affected by the reporting method used. However, the movement time and throughput performances are not significantly different.
Accuracy, movement time, and throughput are also affected by orientation of targets in both depth and frontal planes, in stereoscopic displays. It showed that accuracy suffers when targets are placed farther from the center of the frontal plane at which the compression of space was higher.
The study concluded that, when pointing with vision or memory is adopted, the widely reported underestimation problem in stereoscopic conditions is minimized. This finding implies important practical significance for interactions in near-field and far-field virtual environments. It can also be observed, underestimation in stereoscopic viewing implied the overall compression of space is still an issue that needs to be addressed. In addition, further implications of the results and engineering solutions are discussed.

Keywords: Stereoscopic displays; Space perception; Parallax; Virtual environment; Vision-based pointing; Memory-based pointing

Abstract ii
Acknowledgements iv
Table of Contents v
List of Abbreviations viii
List of Tables ix
List of Figures xi
List of Equations xiii
Chapter 1 1
INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Study Motivation 3
1.3 Study Framework 4
1.4 Scope and Limitation of the Study 7
Chapter 2 8
STATE OF THE ART OF SPACE PERCEPTION IN STEREOSCOPIC DISPLAYS 8
2.1 Introduction 8
2.1.1 VR Elements and Goals 10
2.1.2 Application Areas 11
2.1.3 Stereoscopic Display Technologies 12
2.1.4 Interaction and Visual Perception in 3D 15
2.2 Challenges in 3D Viewing for Users 16
2.2.1 Distance Perception 16
2.2.2 Distance Perception and the Estimation Process 17
2.2.3 Distance Visual Cues 18
2.2.4 Distance Estimation 19
2.2.5 Reporting Perceived Distance 20
2.3 Evaluation of Distance Estimations 21
2.3.1 Egocentric Extrapersonal Distance 22
2.3.2 Egocentric Peripersonal Distance 22
2.3.3 Exocentric Distance 22
2.3.4 Distance Perception in Augmented Reality 23
2.4 What Causes Distance Estimation Inaccuracy? 25
2.4.1 Distance Perception Tasks 25
2.4.2 Quality of Computer Graphics 27
2.4.3 Stereoscopic Condition 29
2.4.4 Experience in VR 31
2.4.5 Distance Cues 32
2.4.6 Others 32
2.5 Size Perception in Stereoscopic Environment 33
2.6 Fatigue and Visual Discomfort 34
2.7 State-of-the-Art Developments in Stereoscopic Viewing 36
Chapter 3 38
EXPERIMENT DESIGN AND METHOD 38
3.1 Participants 38
3.2 Experimental Variables 39
3.2.1 Independent Variables 39
3.2.1.1 Real vs. Virtual Environments 40
3.2.1.2 Response Methods (Vision based vs. Memory based) 41
3.2.1.3 Distance in Depth Plane 42
3.2.1.4 Orientation of Targets 44
3.2.2 Dependent Variables 46
3.1.1. 1 Accuracy of distance estimation 46
3.1.1. 2 Movement time (completion time) and throughput 47
3.3 Hypotheses 48
3.4 Experiment Setup and Design 49
3.5 Apparatus and Stimuli 51
3.6 Procedure 52
Chapter 4 54
RESULTS 54
4.1 Comparison of Space Perceptions in Real and Stereoscopic Environments 54
4.1. 1 Accuracy of Egocentric Distance 55
4.1. 2 Space Perception in Frontal Plane 59
4.1. 3 Movement Time 62
4.2 Effects of Visual Feedbacks 63
4.2. 1 Accuracy of Egocentric Distance 63
4.2. 2 Performance in Frontal Planes 66
4.2. 3 Movement Time 69
4.3 Effects of Depth and Targets’ Orientation 69
4.3. 1 Accuracy of Egocentric Distance Judgment 69
4.3. 2 Performance in Frontal Plane 71
4.3. 3 Movement Time 72
4.4 Interaction Effects 73
Chapter 5 74
DISCUSSION 74
5.1 Effects of Environment 74
5.2 Effects of Response Methods 76
5.3 Effects of Parallax and Orientation of Targets 78
5.4 Effects of Measured IPD 80
Chapter 6 81
CONCLUSION AND FUTURE RESAERCH 81
References 84
Appendix A - Summary of distance estimation results from previous studies 98
Appendix B - Personal information of participants 101
Appendix C - Consent Form and Experiment Procedure 102
Appendix D - Description of Apparatus 106
Appendix E - Summary of Data Collected and Results 107

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