自閉症類群障礙(簡稱自閉症)是一種神經發展障礙性疾病，其核心症狀為社交溝通缺損與侷限、重複的固著行為和興趣。過去研究顯示自閉症兒童異常的行為與動作發展問題常在嬰幼兒階段出現，然而過去研究較少使用標準化的發展測驗工具評估自閉症幼兒的動作發展問題，亦無針對臺灣自閉症兒童的相關研究。此外，過去研究發現極低或超低出生體重早產兒較正常足月兒有較多的自閉症狀特質與較高的危險性罹患自閉症，然而過去並無探討足月出生且罹患自閉症之幼兒與極低出生體重早產幼兒的發展差異。因此，本研究之目的為探討臺灣足月自閉症幼兒的動作與行為發展表現，並和同齡之足月正常幼兒與極低出生體重早產幼兒的發展做比較。本研究共招募15位年齡30或36個月大的足月自閉症幼兒、15位正常足月幼兒、與30位極低出生體重早產幼兒。受試兒童接受行為發展與動作功能的評估。行為發展測量包括:(1)父母填寫一歲半至五歲兒童行為檢核表之問卷;(2)使用自動化行為追蹤系統測量幼兒在自由玩耍情境下的行為軌跡與興趣場域;以及(3)父母填寫重複行為量表修訂版之問卷。幼兒的動作發展使用皮巴迪動作發展量表第二版測量多項的動作功能。研究使用曼-惠特尼U檢驗各項發展指標在足月自閉症幼兒、極低出生體重早產幼兒，與正常足月幼兒間的組別差異，並使用簡單線性回歸比較自閉症或極低出生體重且早產的因素之於行為與動作發展問題的效應。研究結果顯示，在一歲半至五歲兒童行為檢核表之問卷結果中，足月自閉症幼兒在其中四種精神疾病導向問題、六種窄帶行為症狀、內顯與外顯問題、及總行為問題的分數均顯著高於正常足月幼兒；相反地，極低出生體重早產幼兒在情感問題、廣泛發展性問題、情緒反應、身體抱怨、退縮、注意力問題及內顯問題的分數，均與正常足月幼兒的分數相當。並且，自動化行為追蹤系統發現，足月自閉症幼兒較正常足月幼兒停留在周邊場域的時間較長、進入父母場域所花的時間較短、以及在轉圈動作時有較高的旋轉角速度；然而，極低出生體重早產幼兒與正常足月幼兒的表現相當。再者，重複行為量表修訂版的問卷結果發現足月自閉症幼兒相較正常足月幼兒，在總分、固著性行為、固定行為(抗拒變化，堅持事物維持原樣)與受限行為(受限的關心範圍、感興趣與活動範圍)的分數均顯著較高；然而，極低出生體重早產幼兒在與正常足月幼兒的分數並無顯著差異。此外，足月自閉症幼兒在皮巴迪動作發展量表第二版的總動作、粗大動作及精細動作分數均顯著低於正常足月兒，並且足月自閉症幼兒有較高比率落於動作極差的等級；然而，極低出生體重早產兒只有在移位分數較正常足月兒低落。此外，研究發現自閉症因素與精神疾病導向問題、外顯問題、總問題分數、與移位動作分數，均比極低出生體重且早產因素有更高的相關性。本篇研究結果顯示，30與36個月的足月自閉症幼兒表現多樣的行為問題與低落的動作功能。雖然極低出生體重合併早產這個因素，會與外顯問題與低落的移位功能有關，其對於行為和動作發展問題的影響低於自閉症。在臨床應用上，本篇研究顯示全面且早期介入自閉症幼兒的行為與動作發展問題是有必要的。

Background and Purposes: Studies have suggested that behavioral and motor developmental problems typically occur in the early childhood of people with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, few studies have used standardized developmental assessment instruments for evaluating early motor developmental disorders in toddlers with ASD. Furthermore, very-low-birth-weight preterm (VLBW-PT) toddlers were found to exhibit more autistic traits and a higher risk of ASD than full-term (FT) toddlers. However, developmental differences between FT toddlers with ASD (FT-ASD) and VLBW-PT toddlers have rarely been evaluated. Therefore, the present study investigated the behavioral and motor development of Taiwanese toddlers with ASD and compared the development between FT-ASD, FT typically developing (FT-TD), and VLBW-PT toddlers. Methods: In total, 15 FT-ASD, 15 FT-TD, and 30 VLBW-PT toddlers aged 30 or 36 months were included in this study. All toddlers’ behavioral performances were examined using the Child Behavior Checklist for Ages 1.5–5 (CBCL/1.5–5) and the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R). Behavioral trajectory and interests were examined in a free play situation by using the automated behavioral tracking system. Toddlers’ motor functions were examined using the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales, Second Edition (PDMS-2). The Mann–Whitney U test was conducted to examine the differences in each developmental indicator among the groups. For the behavioral or motor indicators for which both FT-ASD and VLBW-PT toddlers differed significantly compared with FT-TD toddlers, a simple linear regression analysis was conducted to determine the effects of ASD versus VLBW and Preterm birth. Results: The results indicated that FT-ASD toddlers achieved significantly higher CBCL/1.5–5 scores than FT-TD toddlers for four Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-Oriented Scales; six Narrow-band syndromes; and Internalizing, Externalizing, and Total Problems (all p’s < 0.05). By contrast, VLBW-PT toddlers and FT-TD toddlers had comparable scores for Affective and Pervasive Developmental Problems, Emotionally Reactive, Somatic Complaints, Withdrawn, Attention Problems and Internalizing Problems. Furthermore, the behavioral tracking data revealed that FT-ASD toddlers spent significantly longer durations in peripheral areas, had less latency to approach the parent, and had higher absolute angular velocities of repetitive turning movements than FT-TD toddlers (all p’s < 0.05), whereas VLBW-PT and FT-TD toddlers had comparable behavioral tracking results. Moreover, FT-ASD toddlers had higher total RBS-R scores and stereotyped, sameness, and restricted behavior subscales scores than FT-TD toddlers (all p’s < 0.05), whereas VLBW-PT and FT-TD toddlers had comparable RBS-R scales scores. In addition, the motor function assessment results revealed that FT-ASD toddlers achieved significantly lower motor scores and a higher proportion of poor classification in the Total, Gross, and Fine Motor Scales of the PDMS-2 than FT-TD toddlers (all p’s < 0.05), whereas VLBW-PT and FT-TD toddlers had comparable motor scores, except for locomotion scores, which were lower in VLBW-PT toddlers. The higher effects of ASD on several behavioral and motor indicators were associated with higher scores for the DSM-Oriented Scales (β = 1.8 – 2.5), Externalizing (β = 6.8), and Total Problems (β = 24.8); and lower locomotion scores (β = -1.7) compared with the effects of VLBW and Preterm birth (all p’s < 0.05). The present findings revealed that FT-ASD toddlers exhibited high degrees of various behavioral problems and poor motor functions at the ages of 30 and 36 months. Although VLBW and preterm birth may be associated with externalizing problems and poor locomotion skills, their effects on behavioral or motor performances were milder than those of ASD. The present findings suggest that comprehensive interventions focused on multiple behavioral and motor developmental domains are necessary for toddlers with ASD.

Table of content i
中文摘要 v
English Abstract vii
Chapter I. Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Thesis purpose 6
1.3 Research questions and hypotheses 6
Chapter II. Literature Review 8
2.1 Behavioral development and problems in young children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) 8
2.1.1 Developmental change of restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior/ interests (RRBs) in typical development and ASD 9
2.1.2 Measurements of RRBs in young children with ASD 11
2.2 Motor development and deficits in young children with ASD 14
2.2.1 Motor deficits and the association with ASD in early childhood 15
2.2.2 Assessment of motor development in young children with ASD 15
2.3 Behavioral and motor development in very-low-birth weight (VLBW) preterm children 16
2.3.1 VLBW preterm toddlers and the risk of developing ASD 19
2.3.2 Behavioral and motor development between young children with ASD and atypically developing (ATD) children 21
Chapter III. Method 25
3.1 Participants 25
3.2 Experimental procedures 26
3.3 Measurements 27
3.4 Training of assessors 33
3.5 Statistical analysis 34
Chapter IV. Result 36
4.1 Subject characteristics 36
4.2 Behavioral problems assessed using the Children Behavior Checklist for ages 1.5–5 years (CBCL/1.5-5) 37
4.3 Restricted, repetitive patterns of behaviors (RRBs) assessed using the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) 38
4.4 Motor developments assessed using the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales, Second Edition (PDMS-2) 39
4.5 Effects of ASD versus VLBW and preterm birth on behavioral and motor problems 39
Chapter V. Discussion 42
5.1 Behavioral problems in Taiwanese toddlers with ASD 42
5.2 Behavioral trajectories and interests in Taiwanese toddlers with ASD 43
5.3 RRBs in Taiwanese toddlers with ASD 44
5.4 Motor developmental problems in Taiwanese toddlers with ASD 46
5.5 Behavioral and motor developments between full-term toddlers with ASD and VLBW preterm Toddlers 48
5.6 Limitation 50
Chapter VI. Conclusion 52
References 53
Tables and Figures 69
Figure 1. The setting of the laboratory room for behavioral tracking experiment 69
Figure 2. The Heat map of the Toddlers with ASD, VLBW preterm children and TD toddlers 70
Table 1. Birth and demographic data among groups 71
Table 2-1. Behavioral problems assessed by Children Behavior Checklist for ages 1.5–5 years (CBCL/1.5-5) DSM-Oriented Scales 72
Table 2-2. Behavioral problems assessed by CBCL/1.5-5 Empirically-Based Scales 73
Table 2-3. Classification of behavioral problems among groups assessed by CBCL/1.5-5 Empirically-Based Scales 74
Table 3. Behavioral trajectories among groups assessed by automatic tracking device 77
Table 4. RRBs among groups assessed by RBS-R 79
Table 5-1. Motor performances among groups assessed by the PDMS 80
Table 5-2. Classification of motor performances among groups assessed by PDMS-2 81
Table 6. Simple linear regression for the effects of ASD versus VLBW and preterm birth on behavioral and motor problems 83
Appendix 84
Appendix A. Measurements for restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities in young children with ASD 85
Appendix B. Comparisons of motor deficits between children with ASD and typically developing children 87
Appendix C. Comparisons of behavioral deficits between children with ASD and ATD children 88
Appendix D. Comparisons of motor deficits between children with ASD and ATD children 90
Appendix E. Informed consent form 93
Appendix F. Basic demographic form 99
Appendix G. Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised (RBS-R) 102

Achenbach, T. M., Rescorla, Leslie. (2000). Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms & profiles : an integrated system of multi-informant assessment / Thomas M. Achenbach & Leslie A. Rescorla. Burlington, VT ASEBA.
Agarwal, P., & Lim, S. B. (2003). Long-term follow-up and outcome of extremely-low-birth-weight (ELBW) infants. Ann Acad Med Singapore, 32(3), 346-353.
Akshoomoff, N. (2006). Use of the Mullen Scales of Early Learning for the assessment of young children with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Child Neuropsychol, 12(4-5), 269-277.
Albores-Gallo, L., Roldán-Ceballos, Ofelia, Villarreal-Valdes, Gabriela, , Betanzos-Cruz, B. X., Santos-Sánchez, C., Martínez-Jaime, Maria Magdalena,, Lemus-Espinosa, I., & Hilton, C. L. (2012). M-CHAT Mexican Version Validity and Reliability and Some Cultural Considerations. ISRN Neurology, 2012, 7.
American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Autism Spectrum Disorder Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed., pp. 50-59). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Association, A. P. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network Surveillance Year 2000 Principal Investigators, & Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2007). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorders--autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, six sites, United States, 2000. MMWR Surveill Summ, 56(1), 1-11.
Autism Developmental Disabilities Monitoring Network Surveillance Year 2010 Principal Investigators. (2014). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children aged 8 years - autism and developmental disabilities monitoring network, 11 sites, United States, 2010. MMWR Surveill Summ, 28(63 Suppl 2), 1-21.
Barber, A. B., Wetherby, A. M., & Chambers, N. W. (2012). Brief report: repetitive behaviors in young children with autism spectrum disorder and developmentally similar peers: a follow up to Watt et al. (2008). J Autism Dev Disord, 42(9), 2006-2012.
Baron, I. S., & Rey-Casserly, C. (2010). Extremely Preterm Birth Outcome: A Review of Four Decades of Cognitive Research. Neuropsychology Review, 20(4), 430-452.
Barre, N., Morgan, A., Doyle, L. W., & Anderson, P. J. (2011). Language abilities in children who were very preterm and/or very low birth weight: a meta-analysis. J Pediatr, 158(5), 766-774.e761.
Bartlett, D., & Piper, M. C. (1993). Neuromotor Development of Preterm Infants Through the First Year of Life. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr, 12(4), 37-55.
Bhat, A. N., Landa, R. J., & Galloway, J. C. (2011). Current perspectives on motor functioning in infants, children, and adults with autism spectrum disorders. Phys Ther, 91(7), 1116-1129.
Bhat, A. N., Galloway, J. C., & Landa, R. J. (2012). Relation between early motor delay and later communication delay in infants at risk for autism. Infant Behavior and Development, 35(4), 838-846.
Ben-Sasson, A., Hen, L., Fluss, R., Cermak, S. A., Engel-Yeger, B., & Gal, E. (2009). A meta-analysis of sensory modulation symptoms in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord, 39(1), 1-11.
Biasini, A., Marvulli, L., Neri, E., China, M., Stella, M., & Monti, F. (2012). Growth and neurological outcome in ELBW preterms fed with human milk and extra-protein supplementation as routine practice: do we need further evidence? J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med, 25 Suppl 4, 72-74.
Bodfish, J. W., Symons, F. J., Parker, D. E., & Lewis, M. H. (2000). Varieties of repetitive behavior in autism: comparisons to mental retardation. J Autism Dev Disord, 30(3), 237-243.
Bolton, P. F., Golding, J., Emond, A., & Steer, C. D. (2012). Autism spectrum disorder and autistic traits in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children: precursors and early signs. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 51(3), 249-260 e225.
Brown, L., Burns, Y. R., Watter, P., Gibbons, K. S., & Gray, P. H. (2015). Motor performance, postural stability and behaviour of non-disabled extremely preterm or extremely low birth weight children at four to five years of age. Early Hum Dev, 91(5), 309-315.
Burns, T. G., King, T. Z., & Spencer, K. S. (2013). Mullen scales of early learning: the utility in assessing children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders, cerebral palsy, and epilepsy. Appl Neuropsychol Child, 2(1), 33-42.
Cahill-Rowley, K., & Rose, J. (2016). Temporal-spatial gait parameters and neurodevelopment in very-low-birth-weight preterm toddlers at 18-22 months. Gait Posture, 45, 83-89.
Carr, L., Iacoboni, M., Dubeau, M. C., Mazziotta, J. C., & Lenzi, G. L. (2003). Neural mechanisms of empathy in humans: a relay from neural systems for imitation to limbic areas. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 100(9), 5497-5502.
Chang, T.-T., Lee, C.-w., Tseng, M.-y., & Wang, Y.-l. (2011). A research about the influence of parental socioeconomic status on the junior high school students learning motivation and achievement. Journal of Family Education Bimonthly, 32.
Chiang, C. H., Soong, W. T., Lin, T. L., & Rogers, S. J. (2008). Nonverbal communication skills in young children with autism. J Autism Dev Disord, 38(10), 1898-1906.
Chien, I. C., Lin, C. H., Chou, Y. J., & Chou, P. (2011). Prevalence and incidence of autism spectrum disorders among national health insurance enrollees in Taiwan from 1996 to 2005. J Child Neurol, 26(7), 830-834.
Cohen, I. L., Gardner, J. M., Karmel, B. Z., & Kim, S. Y. (2014). Rating scale measures are associated with Noldus EthoVision-XT video tracking of behaviors of children on the autism spectrum. Mol Autism, 5(1), 15.
Conrad, A. L., Richman, L., Lindgren, S., & Nopoulos, P. (2010). Biological and environmental predictors of behavioral sequelae in children born preterm. Pediatrics, 125(1), e83-89.
Courchesne, E., Karns, C., Davis, H., Ziccardi, R., Carper, R., Tigue, Z., et al. (2011). Unusual brain growth patterns in early life in patients with autistic disorder: An MRI study. Neurology, 76(24), 2111-2111.
Courchesne, E., Pierce, K., Schumann, C. M., Redcay, E., Buckwalter, J. A., Kennedy, D. P., et al. (2007). Mapping early brain development in autism. Neuron, 56(2), 399-413.
De Giacomo, A., & Fombonne, E. (1998). Parental recognition of developmental abnormalities in autism. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 7(3), 131-136.
de Kieviet, J. F., Piek, J. P., Aarnoudse-Moens, C. S., & Oosterlaan, J. (2009). Motor development in very preterm and very low-birth-weight children from birth to adolescence: a meta-analysis. Jama, 302(20), 2235-2242.
Delobel-Ayoub, M., Arnaud, C., White-Koning, M., Casper, C., Pierrat, V., Garel, M., et al. (2009). Behavioral problems and cognitive performance at 5 years of age after very preterm birth: the EPIPAGE Study. Pediatrics, 123(6), 1485-1492.
Delobel-Ayoub, M., Kaminski, M., Marret, S., Burguet, A., Marchand, L., N''Guyen, S., et al. (2006). Behavioral outcome at 3 years of age in very preterm infants: the EPIPAGE study. Pediatrics, 117(6), 1996-2005.
Doyle, L. W. (2004). Neonatal intensive care at borderline viability--is it worth it? Early Hum Dev, 80(2), 103-113.
Elison, J. T., Wolff, J. J., Reznick, J. S., Botteron, K. N., Estes, A. M., Gu, H., et al. (2014). Repetitive behavior in 12-month-olds later classified with autism spectrum disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 53(11), 1216-1224.
Esposito, G., Venuti, P., Maestro, S., & Muratori, F. (2009). An exploration of symmetry in early autism spectrum disorders: analysis of lying. Brain Dev, 31(2), 131-138.
Evans, D. W., Leckman, J. F., Carter, A., Reznick, J. S., Henshaw, D., King, R. A., et al. (1997). Ritual, habit, and perfectionism: the prevalence and development of compulsive-like behavior in normal young children. Child Dev, 68(1), 58-68.
Farooqi, A., Hagglof, B., Sedin, G., Gothefors, L., & Serenius, F. (2007). Mental health and social competencies of 10- to 12-year-old children born at 23 to 25 weeks of gestation in the 1990s: a Swedish national prospective follow-up study. Pediatrics, 120(1), 118-133.
Ferrari, F., Cioni, G., Einspieler, C., Roversi, M. F., Bos, A. F., Paolicelli, P. B., et al. (2002). Cramped synchronized general movements in preterm infants as an early marker for cerebral palsy. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med, 156(5), 460-467.
Folio, M. R., & Fewell, R. R. (2000). Peabody Developmental Motor Scales, Second Edition. Examiner''s Manual. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
Fulceri, F., Narzisi, A., Apicella, F., Balboni, G., Baldini, S., Brocchini, J., et al. (2016). Application of the Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised - Italian version - in preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder. Res Dev Disabil, 48, 43-52.
Gernsbacher, M. A., Sauer, E. A., Geye, H. M., Schweigert, E. K., & Hill Goldsmith, H. (2008). Infant and toddler oral- and manual-motor skills predict later speech fluency in autism. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 49(1), 43-50.
Gray, P. H., Edwards, D. M., O''Callaghan, M. J., & Gibbons, K. (2015). Screening for autism spectrum disorder in very preterm infants during early childhood. Early Hum Dev, 91(4), 271-276.
Green, D., Baird, G., Barnett, A. L., Henderson, L., Huber, J., & Henderson, S. E. (2002). The severity and nature of motor impairment in Asperger''s syndrome: a comparison with specific developmental disorder of motor function. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 43(5), 655-668.
Guy, A., Seaton, S. E., Boyle, E. M., Draper, E. S., Field, D. J., Manktelow, B. N., et al. (2015). Infants born late/moderately preterm are at increased risk for a positive autism screen at 2 years of age. J Pediatr, 166(2), 269-275 e263.
Hack, M., Wright, L. L., Shankaran, S., Tyson, J. E., Horbar, J. D., Bauer, C. R., et al. (1995). Very-low-birth-weight outcomes of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Neonatal Network, November 1989 to October 1990. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 172(2 Pt 1), 457-464.
Hartley, S. L., Sikora, D. M., & McCoy, R. (2008). Prevalence and risk factors of maladaptive behaviour in young children with Autistic Disorder. J Intellect Disabil Res, 52(10), 819-829.
Hayes, B., & Sharif, F. (2009). Behavioural and emotional outcome of very low birth weight infants--literature review. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med, 22(10), 849-856.
Health Promotion Administration, Ministry of Health and Welfare. (2016). Celebrating World Prematurity Day 2016. Retrieved 11/17, 2016, from http://www.mohw.gov.tw/news/572558787
Hellendoorn, A., Wijnroks, L., van Daalen, E., Dietz, C., Buitelaar, J. K., & Leseman, P. (2015). Motor functioning, exploration, visuospatial cognition and language development in preschool children with autism. Res Dev Disabil, 39, 32-42.
Hilton, C., Wente, L., LaVesser, P., Ito, M., Reed, C., & Herzberg, G. (2007). Relationship between motor skill impairment and severity in children with Asperger syndrome. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 1(4), 339-349.
Hsu, J.-F., Tsai, M.-H., Chu, S.-M., Fu, R.-H., Chiang, M.-C., Hwang, F.-M., et al. (2013). Early detection of minor neurodevelopmental dysfunctions at age 6 months in prematurely born neonates. Early Hum Dev, 89(2), 87-93.
Hus, J. W. v., Potharst, E. s., Visser, M., Kok, J. H., & Leemhuis, A. G. V. W. (2014). Motor impairment in very preterm-born children: links with other developmental deficits at 5 years of age. Dev Med Child Neurol, 56(6), 587-594.
Hwang, Y. S., Weng, S. F., Cho, C. Y., & Tsai, W. H. (2013). Higher prevalence of autism in Taiwanese children born prematurely: a nationwide population-based study. Res Dev Disabil, 34(9), 2462-2468.
Johnson, S. (2007). Cognitive and behavioural outcomes following very preterm birth. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med, 12(5), 363-373.
Johnson, S., Fawke, J., Hennessy, E., Rowell, V., Thomas, S., Wolke, D., et al. (2009). Neurodevelopmental disability through 11 years of age in children born before 26 weeks of gestation. Pediatrics, 124(2), e249-257.
Johnson, S., Hollis, C., Kochhar, P., Hennessy, E., Wolke, D., & Marlow, N. (2010). Autism spectrum disorders in extremely preterm children. J Pediatr, 156(4), 525-531.e522.
Johnson, S., & Marlow, N. (2011). Preterm birth and childhood psychiatric disorders. Pediatr Res, 69(5 Pt 2), 11r-18r.
Kanne, S. M., & Mazurek, M. O. (2011). Aggression in children and adolescents with ASD: prevalence and risk factors. J Autism Dev Disord, 41(7), 926-937.
Kanner, L. (1968). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Acta Paedopsychiatr, 35(4), 100-136.
Karmel, B. Z., Gardner, J. M., Meade, L. S., Cohen, I. L., London, E., Flory, M. J., et al. (2010). Early medical and behavioral characteristics of NICU infants later classified with ASD. Pediatrics, 126(3), 457-467.
Kim, S. H., & Lord, C. (2010). Restricted and repetitive behaviors in toddlers and preschoolers with autism spectrum disorders based on the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS). Autism Res, 3(4), 162-173.
Kuzniewicz, M. W., Wi, S., Qian, Y., Walsh, E. M., Armstrong, M. A., & Croen, L. A. (2014). Prevalence and neonatal factors associated with autism spectrum disorders in preterm infants. J Pediatr, 164(1), 20-25.
Lai, D. C., Tseng, Y. C., & Guo, H. R. (2013). Trends in the prevalence of childhood disability: analysis of data from the national disability registry of Taiwan, 2000-2011. Res Dev Disabil, 34(11), 3766-3772.
Lam, K. S., & Aman, M. G. (2007). The Repetitive Behavior Scale-Revised: independent validation in individuals with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord, 37(5), 855-866.
Lampi, K. M., Lehtonen, L., Tran, P. L., Suominen, A., Lehti, V., Banerjee, P. N., et al. (2012). Risk of autism spectrum disorders in low birth weight and small for gestational age infants. J Pediatr, 161(5), 830-836.
Lane, A., Harpster, K., & Heathcock, J. (2012). Motor characteristics of young children referred for possible autism spectrum disorder. Pediatr Phys Ther, 24(1), 21-29.
Leavey, A., Zwaigenbaum, L., Heavner, K., & Burstyn, I. (2013). Gestational age at birth and risk of autism spectrum disorders in Alberta, Canada. J Pediatr, 162(2), 361-368.
Lecavalier, L., Leone, S., & Wiltz, J. (2006). The impact of behaviour problems on caregiver stress in young people with autism spectrum disorders. J Intellect Disabil Res, 50(Pt 3), 172-183.
Limberg, K., Gruber, K., & Noterdaeme, M. (2016). The German version of the Child Behavior Checklist 1.5-5 to identify children with a risk of autism spectrum disorder. Autism.
Limperopoulos, C., Bassan, H., Sullivan, N. R., Soul, J. S., Robertson, R. L., Jr., Moore, M., et al. (2008). Positive screening for autism in ex-preterm infants: prevalence and risk factors. Pediatrics, 121(4), 758-765.
Linsell, L., Malouf, R., Morris, J., Kurinczuk, J. J., & Marlow, N. (2016). Prognostic factors for cerebral palsy and motor impairment in children born very preterm or very low birthweight: a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol, 58(6), 554-569.
Lloyd, M., MacDonald, M., & Lord, C. (2013). Motor skills of toddlers with autism spectrum disorders. Autism, 17(2), 133-146.
Luyster, R., Gotham, K., Guthrie, W., Coffing, M., Petrak, R., Pierce, K., et al. (2009). The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-toddler module: a new module of a standardized diagnostic measure for autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord, 39(9), 1305-1320.
MacDonald, M., Lord, C., & Ulrich, D. A. (2013). The relationship of motor skills and social communicative skills in school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder. Adapt Phys Activ Q, 30(3), 271-282.
MacDonald, M., Lord, C., & Ulrich, D. A. (2014). Motor skills and calibrated autism severity in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Adapt Phys Activ Q, 31(2), 95-105.
Matson, J. L., Mahan, S., Fodstad, J. C., Hess, J. A., & Neal, D. (2010). Motor skill abilities in toddlers with autistic disorder, pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified, and atypical development. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 4(3), 444-449.
Matson, J. L., Mahan, S., Kozlowski, A. M., & Shoemaker, M. (2010). Developmental milestones in toddlers with autistic disorder, pervasive developmental disorder--not otherwise specified and atypical development. Dev Neurorehabil, 13(4), 239-247.
Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., Mayes, R. D., & Molitoris, S. (2012). Autism and ADHD: Overlapping and discriminating symptoms. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 6(1), 277-285.
Mazurek, M. O., & Sohl, K. (2016). Sleep and Behavioral Problems in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder. J Autism Dev Disord, 46(6), 1906-1915.
Ming, X., Brimacombe, M., & Wagner, G. C. (2007). Prevalence of motor impairment in autism spectrum disorders. Brain Dev, 29(9), 565-570.
Morgan, L., Wetherby, A. M., & Barber, A. (2008). Repetitive and stereotyped movements in children with autism spectrum disorders late in the second year of life. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 49(8), 826-837.

Moy, S. S., Nadler, J. J., Perez, A., Barbaro, R. P., Johns, J. M., Magnuson, T. R., et al. (2004). Sociability and preference for social novelty in five inbred strains: an approach to assess autistic-like behavior in mice. Genes Brain Behav, 3(5), 287-302.
Mullen, E., Eileen M. . (1995). Mullen Scales of Early Learning: AGS Edition. Bloomington, MN: Pearson Clinical Assessment
Narzisi, A., Calderoni, S., Maestro, S., Calugi, S., Mottes, E., & Muratori, F. (2013). Child Behavior Check List 1(1/2)-5 as a tool to identify toddlers with autism spectrum disorders: a case-control study. Res Dev Disabil, 34(4), 1179-1189.
Nickel, L. R., Thatcher, A. R., Keller, F., Wozniak, R. H., & Iverson, J. M. (2013). Posture Development in Infants at Heightened vs. Low Risk for Autism Spectrum Disorders. Infancy, 18(5), 639-661.
Noldus Information Technology (2014). Noldus EthoVision-XT 11 system. Wageningen, the Netherlands: Noldus Information Technology.
Oberman, L. M., Hubbard, E. M., McCleery, J. P., Altschuler, E. L., Ramachandran, V. S., & Pineda, J. A. (2005). EEG evidence for mirror neuron dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders. Brain Res Cogn Brain Res, 24(2), 190-198.
Ozonoff, S., Young, G. S., Belding, A., Hill, M., Hill, A., Hutman, T., et al. (2014). The broader autism phenotype in infancy: when does it emerge? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 53(4), 398-407 e392.
Pin, T. W., Eldridge, B., & Galea, M. P. (2010). Motor trajectories from 4 to 18 months corrected age in infants born at less than 30 weeks of gestation. Early Hum Dev, 86(9), 573-580.
Pinto-Martin, J. A., Levy, S. E., Feldman, J. F., Lorenz, J. M., Paneth, N., & Whitaker, A. H. (2011). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder in adolescents born weighing <2000 grams. Pediatrics, 128(5), 883-891.
Pritchard, M. A., de Dassel, T., Beller, E., Bogossian, F., Johnston, L., Paynter, J., et al. (2016). Autism in Toddlers Born Very Preterm. Pediatrics, 137(2), e20151949.
Provost, B., Heimerl, S., & Lopez, B. R. (2007). Levels of gross and fine motor development in young children with autism spectrum disorder. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr, 27(3), 21-36.
Provost, B., Lopez, B. R., & Heimerl, S. (2007). A comparison of motor delays in young children: autism spectrum disorder, developmental delay, and developmental concerns. J Autism Dev Disord, 37(2), 321-328.
Pugliese, M., Rossi, C., Guidotti, I., Gallo, C., Della Casa, E., Bertoncelli, N., et al. (2013). Preterm birth and developmental problems in infancy and preschool age Part II: cognitive, neuropsychological and behavioural outcomes. J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med, 26(16), 1653-1657.
Qiu, A., Adler, M., Crocetti, D., Miller, M. I., & Mostofsky, S. H. (2010). Basal ganglia shapes predict social, communication, and motor dysfunctions in boys with autism spectrum disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 49(6), 539-551, 551.e531-534.
Radonovich, K. J., Fournier, K. A., & Hass, C. J. (2013). Relationship between postural control and restricted, repetitive behaviors in autism spectrum disorders. Front Integr Neurosci, 7, 28.
Reijneveld, S. A., de Kleine, M. J., van Baar, A. L., Kollee, L. A., Verhaak, C. M., Verhulst, F. C., et al. (2006). Behavioural and emotional problems in very preterm and very low birthweight infants at age 5 years. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed, 91(6), F423-428.
Richdale, A. L., & Schreck, K. A. (2009). Sleep problems in autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, nature, & possible biopsychosocial aetiologies. Sleep Med Rev, 13(6), 403-411.
Richler, J., Bishop, S. L., Kleinke, J. R., & Lord, C. (2007). Restricted and repetitive behaviors in young children with autism spectrum disorders. J Autism Dev Disord, 37(1), 73-85.
Richler, J., Huerta, M., Bishop, S. L., & Lord, C. (2010). Developmental trajectories of restricted and repetitive behaviors and interests in children with autism spectrum disorders. Dev Psychopathol, 22(1), 55-69.
Rizzolatti, G. (2005). The mirror neuron system and its function in humans. Anat Embryol (Berl), 210(5-6), 419-421.
Rizzolatti, G., Fogassi, L., & Gallese, V. (2001). Neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the understanding and imitation of action. Nat Rev Neurosci, 2(9), 661-670.
Rojahn, J., Matson, J. L., Mahan, S., Fodstad, J. C., Knight, C., Sevin, J. A., et al. (2009). Cutoffs, norms, and patterns of problem behaviors in children with an ASD on the Baby and Infant Screen for Children with aUtIsm Traits (BISCUIT-Part 3). Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 3(4), 989-998.
Rugolo, L. M. (2005). Growth and developmental outcomes of the extremely preterm infant. J Pediatr (Rio J), 81(1 Suppl), S101-110.
Sansavini, A., Guarini, A., Justice, L. M., Savini, S., Broccoli, S., Alessandroni, R., et al. (2010). Does preterm birth increase a child''s risk for language impairment? Early Hum Dev, 86(12), 765-772.
Schertz, H. H., Odom, S. L., Baggett, K. M., & Sideris, J. H. (2016). Parent-Reported Repetitive Behavior in Toddlers on the Autism Spectrum. J Autism Dev Disord, 46(10), 3308-3316.
Sipes, M., Matson, J. L., & Horovitz, M. (2011). Autism spectrum disorders and motor skills: the effect on socialization as measured by the Baby And Infant Screen For Children with aUtIsm Traits (BISCUIT). Dev Neurorehabil, 14(5), 290-296.
Souders, M. C., Mason, T. B., Valladares, O., Bucan, M., Levy, S. E., Mandell, D. S., et al. (2009). Sleep behaviors and sleep quality in children with autism spectrum disorders. Sleep, 32(12), 1566-1578.
Stangenes, K. M., Fevang, S. K., Grundt, J., Donkor, H. M., Markestad, T., Hysing, M., et al. (2017). Children born extremely preterm had different sleeping habits at 11 years of age and more childhood sleep problems than term-born children. Acta Paediatr.
Stoelhorst, G. M., Rijken, M., Martens, S. E., van Zwieten, P. H., Feenstra, J., Zwinderman, A. H., et al. (2003). Developmental outcome at 18 and 24 months of age in very preterm children: a cohort study from 1996 to 1997. Early Hum Dev, 72(2), 83-95.
Tavasoli, A., Azimi, P., & Montazari, A. (2014). Reliability and validity of the Peabody Developmental Motor Scales-second edition for assessing motor development of low birth weight preterm infants. Pediatr Neurol, 51(4), 522-526.
Tielsch, J. M. (2015). Global Incidence of Preterm Birth. Nestle Nutr Inst Workshop Ser, 81, 9-15.
Troyb, E., Knoch, K., Herlihy, L., Stevens, M. C., Chen, C. M., Barton, M., et al. (2016). Restricted and Repetitive Behaviors as Predictors of Outcome in Autism Spectrum Disorders. J Autism Dev Disord, 46(4), 1282-1296.
Tsuchiya, K. J., Matsumoto, K., Yagi, A., Inada, N., Kuroda, M., Inokuchi, E., et al. (2013). Reliability and validity of autism diagnostic interview-revised, Japanese version. J Autism Dev Disord, 43(3), 643-662.
van der Pal-de Bruin, K. M., van der Pal, S. M., Verloove-Vanhorick, S. P., & Walther, F. J. (2015). Profiling the preterm or VLBW born adolescent; implications of the Dutch POPS cohort follow-up studies. Early Hum Dev, 91(2), 97-102.
van Haastert, I. C., de Vries, L. S., Helders, P. J., & Jongmans, M. J. (2006). Early gross motor development of preterm infants according to the Alberta Infant Motor Scale. J Pediatr, 149(5), 617-622.
Waelvelde, H. V., Oostra, A. N. N., Dewitte, G., Broeck, V. D. C., & Jongmans, M. J. (2010). Stability of motor problems in young children with or at risk of autism spectrum disorders, ADHD, and or developmental coordination disorder. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 52(8), e174-e178.
Watt, N., Wetherby, A. M., Barber, A., & Morgan, L. (2008). Repetitive and stereotyped behaviors in children with autism spectrum disorders in the second year of life. J Autism Dev Disord, 38(8), 1518-1533.
Whitfield, M. F., Grunau, R. V., & Holsti, L. (1997). Extremely premature (< or = 800 g) schoolchildren: multiple areas of hidden disability. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed, 77(2), F85-90.
Wightman, A., Schluchter, M., Drotar, D., Andreias, L., Taylor, H. G., Klein, N., et al. (2007). Parental protection of extremely low birth weight children at age 8 years. J Dev Behav Pediatr, 28(4), 317-326.
Williamson, K. E., & Jakobson, L. S. (2014a). Social attribution skills of children born preterm at very low birth weight. Dev Psychopathol, 26(4 Pt 1), 889-900.
Williamson, K. E., & Jakobson, L. S. (2014b). Social perception in children born at very low birthweight and its relationship with social/behavioral outcomes. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 55(9), 990-998.
Wong, H. S., Huertas-Ceballos, A., Cowan, F. M., & Modi, N. (2014). Evaluation of early childhood social-communication difficulties in children born preterm using the Quantitative Checklist for Autism in Toddlers. J Pediatr, 164(1), 26-33.e21.
Woodward, L. J., Moor, S., Hood, K. M., Champion, P. R., Foster-Cohen, S., Inder, T. E., et al. (2009). Very preterm children show impairments across multiple neurodevelopmental domains by age 4 years. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed, 94(5), F339-344.
Wu, Y. T., Chen, W. J., Hsieh, W. S., Chen, P. C., Liao, H. F., Su, Y. N., et al. (2012). Maternal-reported behavioral and emotional problems in Taiwanese preschool children. Res Dev Disabil, 33(3), 866-873.
Zappella, M., Einspieler, C., Bartl-Pokorny, K. D., Krieber, M., Coleman, M., Bolte, S., et al. (2015). What do home videos tell us about early motor and socio-communicative behaviours in children with autistic features during the second year of life--An exploratory study. Early Hum Dev, 91(10), 569-575.
Zohar, A. H., & Felz, L. (2001). Ritualistic Behavior in Young Children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(2), 121-128