臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

打蠟能夠防止板金表面生鏽及退色並提升汽車的商業價值，是現今汽車美容產業中不可或缺的重要步驟。然而目前用於汽車美容的打蠟作業尚需耗費大量人力與時間方能完成，故本研究開發首套用於汽車美容之自動打蠟系統以提升打蠟效率與品質。系統運作方式為藉由深度攝影機建立汽車板金的點雲資料並規劃系統的打蠟軌跡，接著使用機械手臂搭配多軸力量感測器迴授資訊進行打蠟力道控制。為了評估自動化打蠟品質的良窳，本研究透過外在點光源的照射，事先對汽車美容師傅人工打蠟結果進行影像分析，包括影像灰階處理、Canny邊緣偵測以及霍夫圓形轉換；並計算打蠟後影像的高斯分布函數，在分析該函數平均指與標準差之分布機率後，則可建立一套檢測打蠟品質好壞的評量指標。本研究以此評量指標為基準，將實驗結果進行影像分析並與評量指標做比較，探討影響打蠟品質的因素。最後以手臂打蠟力道與移動速度作為影響因子，透過建立系統的數學模型與最佳化分析求得最理想的實驗參數組合，並以此組合進行打蠟實驗，證實本系統可有效改善人工打蠟施力不均與品質不佳的問題，驗證本系統的可行性。

In car detailing, waxing is an important procedure which can protect car paint, prevent car rust and further increase the economic benefits of automobile industries by preserving the oils in the paint. Nowadays, this delicate work is still finished by a sequence of careful manual operations and requires iterative fine adjustments to achieve an acceptable waxing quality. The purpose of this study is to present an automatic waxing system and an image-based evaluation criteria to improve the efficiency and quality in the process of car waxing. We use an RGB-D camera to build the point cloud data of a workpiece of sheet metal and plan the waxing path of a robot manipulator equipped with a multi-axis force sensor for waxing force measurement and control. The images of the waxed surfaces of sheet metal conducted by an experience car detailer are first captured and analyzed by implementing image processing algorithms including gray-level transformation, Canny edge detection, and Hough circle transform. A Gaussian distribution function and its parameterized values are obtained from these images and treated as a performance index to evaluate the quality of this robotic waxing system. Based on this imaged-based performance index, the waxing quality is evaluated considering the parameters of waxing force and moving speed and a mathematical model is found to optimize the values of these parameters. Finally, the experiments justify the feasibility of the proposed robotic waxing system.

摘要
Abstract
致謝
目錄
圖目錄
表目錄
第一章 緒論
1.1 前言
1.2 既有技術與研究動機
1.3 打蠟品質影響因素探討
1.4 本文貢獻與架構
第二章 系統設備架構
2.1 深度攝影機(RGB-D)
2.2 個人電腦
2.3 XYZ平台
2.4 機械手臂
2.5 Arduino Mega 2560 控制板
2.6 L298N 直流馬達控制模組
2.7 HCTL-2032晶片電路
2.8 六軸力量感測器
第三章 機械手臂運動分析
3.1 機械手臂坐標系統
3.2 正向運動學 (Forward Kinematics)
3.3 反向運動學 (Inverse Kinematics)
第四章 立體視覺與路徑規劃
4.1 彩色與深度平面FOV校正
4.2 影像前處理
4.3.1 數位影像格式
4.3.2 色彩濾波
4.3.3 影像二值化
4.3.4 形態學
4.3.5 遮罩運算
4.3 立體視覺與像機校正
4.3.1 攝影機成像原理
4.3.2 座標系轉換
4.3.3 相機校正
4.3.4 外部參數計算
4.4 打蠟路徑規劃
4.4.1 最小平方回歸法(Least Square Regression, LSR)
4.4.2 曲線斜率計算
4.4.3 姿態限制
第五章 機械手臂順應性控制
5.1 以位置為基礎之阻抗控制(Position-Based Impedance Control)
5.2 機械手臂姿態轉變之阻抗控制(Orientation Impedance)
5.3 結合位置與姿態之阻抗控制
5.4 機械手臂之力道控制
5.5 標準二階系統暫態響應
5.6 阻抗控制系統限制條件
第六章 打蠟評量指標
6.1 外在光源選擇
6.2 打蠟影像分析
6.2.1 調整相機亮度
6.2.2 影像灰階處理
6.2.3 影像邊緣偵測(Canny Edge Detection)
6.2.4 霍夫圓形轉換(Hough Circle Detection)
6.3 建立打蠟影像評量指標(Performance Index)
6.3.1 常態分布函數
6.3.2 建立評量指標
第七章 實驗結果與討論
7.1 力量追跡分析
7.2 打蠟速度與力量結果探討
7.2.1 整體系統流程
7.2.2 實驗條件與參數設定
7.2.3 實驗結果
7.3 打蠟參數最佳化分析
7.3.1 建立最佳化數學模型
7.3.2 最佳化結果與驗證
第八章 結論與未來目標
8.1 結論
8.2 未來研究目標
參考文獻

[1] M. Longmuir and N. A. Ahmed, “Commercial aircraft exterior cleaning optimization,” Journal of Aircraft, vol. 46, no. 1, pp. 284-290, 2009.
[2] WAYNE’S WAX, “Wayne’s Wax Estimated Aircraft Fuel Savings Chart” [Online]. Available: http://wayneswax.com/aircraft/
[3] MacroTrends Charting Global Markets and Economies, “Crude Oil Prices - 70 Year Historical Chart” [Online]. Available: http://www.macrotrends.net/1369/crude-oil-price-history-chart.
[4] J. Gagne, A. Murrieta, R. M. Botez and D. Labour, “New method for aircraft fuel saving using Flight Management System and its validation on the L-1011 aircraft,” 2013 Aviation Technology Integration and Operations Conference, Los Angeles, 2013, pp.4290.
[5] R. Huang et al., “Energy and emissions saving potential of additive manufacturing: the case of lightweight aircraft components,” Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 135, no. 1, pp. 1559-1570, 2016.
[6] D. PARKS, How to Paint Your Car: Revised & Updated, Minneapolis: Motor books, 2013.
[7] L. Fengyan and Z. Tianbo, “Emulsified Wax Products with Multifunction and High Surplus Value,” FINE CHEMICALS, vol. 1, 1997.
[8] Z. Wenchang, “PREPARATION AND APPLICATION OF THE EMULSIFIED WAX ,” PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY TECHNOLOGY, vol. 4, pp.16, 1999.
[9] D. Zhu et al., “Preparation of Polishing Emulsified Wax for Car,” Contemporary Chemical Industry, vol. 2, pp. 3, 2009.
[10] S. KUMAR, “Theories of musculoskeletal injury causation,” Ergonomics, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 17-47, 2001.
[11] DETAILING Inc., “AirForce One Preferred Detailer” [Online]. Available: https://www.detailinginc.com/
[12] The B.A.R.E. Mermaid, “Exterior Detailing: (Waxes & Compounds)” [Online]. Available: https://www.thebaremermaid.com/exterior-services/
[13] “J R Central Japan Railway Company,” http://english.jr-central.co.jp/index.html
[14] AUTO DEETS, “Top 10 Rated: What’s The Best Car Wax for your Ride?” [Online]. Available: https://www.autodeets.com/top-10-rated-whats-the-best-car-wax-for-your-ride/
[15] Car Cleaning Guru, “Hand Polishing vs Machine Polishing” [Online]. Available: http://www.carcleaningguru.com/hand-polishing-vs-machine-polishing/
[16] Xclusiveautoworks, “Subaru WRX Paint Correction Detail” [Online]. Available: http://xclusiveautoworks.com/subaru-wrx-paint-correction-detail/
[17] “OpenCV,” http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenCV
[18] “Ezi-SERVO Closed Loop Stepping System,” http://www.fastech.co.kr/bbs/eng/product.php?category=0
[19] “IG-42CGM-03TYPE-12V,” http://www.shayye.com.tw/product-inner.aspx?f=s&i=119
[20] “IG-32RGM-03TYPE-12V,” http://www.shayye.com.tw/product-inner.aspx?f=s&i=86
[21] “GBP30-F-25150-15YC,” http://sohomotor.com/images/product/3m3535-15yc.jpg
[22] “Arduino Mega 2560 ,” https://www.arduino.cc/en/Main/arduinoBoardMega2560?setlang=en
[23] “L298N motor driver module,” http://www.14core.com/wiring-driving-the-l298n-h-bridge-on-2-to-4-dc-motors/
[24] “Avago HCTL-2032-SC,” https://docs.broadcom.com/docs/AV02-0096EN
[25] “OptoForce HEX-58-RE-400N,” https://optoforce.com/6-axis-f-t-sensor
[26] M. W. Spong, S. Hutchinson and M. Vidyasagar, Robot Modeling and Control, Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley, 2006.
[27] https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RGB_color_solid_cube.png
[28] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HSL_and_HSV
[29] https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/YUV
[30] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YIQ
[31] 陳慶昌, “影像自動化微組裝工廠之發展,” 國立成功大學機械工程學系碩士論文,2006.
[32] http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/rbf/HIPR2/dilate.htm
[33] http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/rbf/HIPR2/erode.htm
[34] http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/rbf/HIPR2/open.htm
[35] http://homepages.inf.ed.ac.uk/rbf/HIPR2/close.htm
[36] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflection
[37] H. Cho, Optomechatronics : Fusion of Optical and Mechatronic Engineering, New York: Taylor & Francis, 2006.
[38] R. Tsai, “A Versatile Camera Calibration Technique for High-accuracy 3D Machine Vision Metrology Using Off-the-shelf TV Cameras and Lenses,” IEEE Journal of robotics and Automation, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 323-344, 1987.
[39] Z. Zhang, “A flexible New Technique for Camera Calibration,” IEEE Transactions on pattern analysis and machine intelligence, vol. 22, no. 11, pp. 1330-1334, 2000.
[40] “Camera Calibration Toolbox for Matlab,” http://www.vision.caltech.edu
/bouguetj/calib_doc/htmls/example.html
[41] C. F. Gauss and C. H. Davis, Theory of the Motion of the Heavenly Bodies Moving about the Sun in Conic Sections, 1st ed. Mineola, New York: Dover, 2004.
[42] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_squares
[43] M. H. Raibert and J. J. Craig, “Hybrid position/force control of manipulators,” Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control, vol. 102, pp. 126-133 1981.
[44] N. Hogan, “Impedance control: An approach to manipulation: Part I—Theory,” Journal of dynamic systems, measurement, and control, vol. 107, pp. 1-7, 1985.
[45] N. Hogan, “Impedance control: An approach to manipulation: Part II—Implementation,” Journal of dynamic systems, measurement, and control, vol. 107, pp. 8-16, 1985.
[46] N. Hogan, “Impedance control: An approach to manipulation: Part III—Applications,” Journal of dynamic systems, measurement, and control, vol. 107, pp. 17-24, 1985.
[47] M. H. Raibert and J. J. Craig, “Hybrid position/force control of manipulators.” ASME Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement, and Control, vol. 102, no. 2, pp.126-133, 1981.
[48] S. Jung, T. C. Hsia, and R. G. Bonitz, “Force tracking impedance control of robot manipulators under unknown environment,” IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology, vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 474-483, 2004.
[49] S. N. Norman, “Time response,” in Control Systems Engineering, vol. 6, New York, NY, USA: Wiley, 2011, pp. 168-196.
[50] https://www.autogeekonline.net/forum/auto-detailing-101
[51] http://kdetailing.pixnet.net/blog/post/27298256
[52] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffuse_reflection
[53] http://docs.opencv.org/2.4/modules/highgui/doc/reading_and_writing_images_and_video.html#videocapture-set
[54] J. Canny, “A computational approach to edge detection,” IEEE Transactions on pattern analysis and machine intelligence, vol. 8, no. 6, pp. 679-698, 1986.
[55] D. H. Ballard, “Generalizing the Hough transform to detect arbitrary shapes,” Pattern recognition, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 111-122, 1981.
[56] http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-halation.htm
[57] http://docs.opencv.org/2.4/doc/tutorials/imgproc/imgtrans/canny_detector/canny_detector.html
[58] H.K. Yuen, J. Princen, J. Illingworth, and J. Kittler. “Comparative study of Hough transform methods for circle finding,” Image and Vision Computing, vol. 8, no. 1, pp. 71–77, 1990.
[59] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_distribution
[60] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean
[61] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_deviation
[62] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_density_function
[63] 3M Science, “Waxes” [Online]. Available: http://www.3m.com/3M/en_US/company-us/all-3m-products/~/All-3M-Products/Waxes
[64] MathWorks, “Solve a Constrained Nonlinear Problem” [Online]. Available: https://www.mathworks.com/help/optim/ug/example-nonlinear-constrained-minimization.html