臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

研究目的：探討在2010年海地大地震之後，曾經居住過難民營的女性，是否比沒居住過難民營的女性更容易受到親密伴侶暴力或性暴力。
研究方法：選用海地2012年人口及健康普查資料庫，其中有14,287位年齡在15到49歲的女性受訪。問卷包含親密伴侶暴力以及非伴侶間性暴力的問題，針對非伴侶間性暴力，受訪者必須回答是發生在2010地震之前還是之後。我們使用邏輯回歸分析，以及粗糙化的精準配對來解決居住在難民營的內生性問題，結果以勝算比及95%信賴區間表示。
研究結果：受訪的14,287位海地女性當中，36%曾經居住過難民營的女性在過去12個月內，曾經遭受親密伴侶情緒上、肢體上、以及性方面的暴力，而沒有居住過難民營的女性比例則為28%。在非伴侶間的性暴力部分，全部受訪者之中有4.49%曾經遭受強暴。在經過家戶特性的配對之後，曾經住過難民營會顯著的使女性遭受地震之後的非伴侶間性暴力的勝算比顯著上升 (勝算比=2.34, 95% 信賴區間 1.16 - 4.73)。 已婚且曾經居住在難民營的女性，跟已婚不住在難民營的女性相比，在地震後遭受非伴侶間性暴力的勝算比顯著較高(勝算比=3.77, 95% 信賴區間 1.40 - 10.16)。
結論：曾經居住過難民營的女性，顯著地較容易遭受到非伴侶間性暴力。

Objective: To assess whether internal displacement after a major earthquake was associated with higher risks of being subjected to intimate partner violence and sexual violence among Haitian women.

Methods: In the DHS cross-sectional dataset, 14,287 Haitian women, including those living in the camps, were interviewed between January and June 2012. Interviewees answered questionnaires assessing the level of intimate partner violence (IPV) experienced in three separate domains: emotional, physical and sexual. Participants also reported sexual violence (SV) perpetrated by non-partners before or after the 2010 earthquake. We performed logistic regression with coarsened exact matching and odds ratios (ORs) of displacement, along with other sociodemographic factors, in experiencing IPV and sexual violence were reported.

Results: In 2012, 36% of displaced women reported to have experienced intimate partner violence in the past 12 months, while the prevalence among women who were not displaced was 28%. After adjusting for confounding variables and CEM to ensure comparability among women of different residence status, displacement was found to be significantly associated with higher risks of non-partner sexual violence after the 2010 earthquake (OR=2.34, 95% CI 1.16 - 4.73). Married women in camps were more prone to sexual violence perpetrated by non-partners (OR=3.77, 95% CI 1.40 - 10.16), compared with married women living elsewhere than in camps after the 2010 earthquake.

Conclusion: The findings suggest that displacement may have exposed Haitian woman to significantly higher risks of experiencing sexual violence at the hands of non-partners.

Contents
摘要 i
Abstract ii
Contents iii
List of Tables and Figures iv
1. Introduction 1
2. Data and Methods 5
2.1 DATA 5
2.2 Measures of violence 5
2.3 Measures of independent variables 6
2.4 Reference Group 7
2.5 Data Analysis 8
2.6 Alternative Methods 10
3. Results 12
3.1 Descriptive statistics 12
3.2 Multivariate analysis 16
3.3 Robustness Check 24
4. Discussion 31
4.1 Key Findings 31
4.2 Violence in Haiti Before the 2010 Earthquake 31
4.3 Routine Activity Theory and Social Disorganization Theory 31
4.4 Other Independent Variables 33
4.5 Reporting Rate of IPV and SV 34
4.6 Endogeneity of Displacement 35
4.7 Limitations 37
4.8 Policy Implications and Conclusion 37
5. References 39
6. Appendix 42


 
List of Tables and Figures

Table I Descriptive statistics of interviewees 14
Table II Distribution of selected variables after CEM 18
Table III Odds ratio from logistic regression models predicting IPV, SV perpetrated by partners in the past 12 months ,and SV perpetrated by non-partners in lifetime 19
Table IV Odds ratio from logistic regression models predicting SV perpetrated by non-partners in lifetime, before and after the 2010 earthquake, stratified by marital status 22

Figure I GIS locations of camps in Haiti, as in January 2012 13
Figure II Example of correcting dispersed distribution among urban and rural households after CEM 18
Figure III Marginal effects of independent variables on IPV, SV by partner, SV by non-partner after the 2010 earthquake for interviewee aged 15-19 yrs old, middle household wealth index, attained secondary education, living in Aire Metropolitaine/Reste-Ouest area. For violence perpetrated by partners, we use partner educational level as secondary education completed as well. 26
Figure IV: Density Map of IPV (left) and SV perpetrated by intimate partners (right), broken down into ten districts. 28
Figure V: Density Map of SV by non-partner, before (left) and after the 2010 earthquake (right), broken down into ten districts. 29
Figure VI Comparison of three dependent variables: IPV, SV by partner, SV by non-partner in 2005 and 2012, in all the regions or Aire Metropolitaine/Reste-Ouest only 30


Appendix Table I Multilevel analysis on IPV, SV by partner/non-partner, SV by non-partner before/after the 2010 earthquake, 1st:individual 2nd:regional 42
Appendix Table II Instrumental Variable Analysis 46
Appendix Table III Adding independent variables: ever- married and having children or not into logistic regression. 48

Appendix Figure I: Density Map of male unemployment rate (left) and the percentage of the poorest households (right), broken down into ten districts. 44
Appendix Figure II: Density Map of the proportion of men justifying beating wife, broken down into ten districts 45

References
[1] 2017 Global Report on Internal Displacement n.d. http://www.internal-displacement.org/global-report/grid2017/ (accessed May 9, 2018).
[2] Watts C, Zimmerman C. Violence against women: global scope and magnitude. The Lancet 2002;359:1232–7. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08221-1.
[3] Hayes BE. Impact of Victim, Offender, and Relationship Characteristics on Frequency and Timing of Intimate Partner Violence using Life History Calendar Data. J Res Crime Delinquency 2016;53:189–219. doi:10.1177/0022427815597038.
[4] North RL, Rothenberg KH. Partner Notification and the Threat of Domestic Violence against Women with HIV Infection. N Engl J Med 1993;329:1194–6. doi:10.1056/NEJM199310143291612.
[5] Jewkes R. Intimate partner violence: causes and prevention. The Lancet 2002;359:1423–9. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08357-5.
[6] Khawaja M. Domestic violence in refugee camps in Jordan. Int J Gynecol Obstet 2004;86:67–9. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2004.04.008.
[7] Vyas S, Watts C. How does economic empowerment affect women’s risk of intimate partner violence in low and middle income countries? A systematic review of published evidence. J Int Dev 2009;21:577–602. doi:10.1002/jid.1500.
[8] Fox GL, Benson ML. Household and Neighborhood Contexts of Intimate Partner Violence. Public Health Rep 1974- 2006;121:419–27.
[9] Campbell JC. Health consequences of intimate partner violence. The Lancet 2002;359:1331–6. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(02)08336-8.
[10] Peterman A, Palermo T, Bredenkamp C. Estimates and Determinants of Sexual Violence Against Women in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Am J Public Health 2011;101:1060–7. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2010.300070.
[11] Abrahams N, Jewkes R, Hoffman M, Laubsher R. Sexual violence against intimate partners in Cape Town: prevalence and risk factors reported by men. Bull World Health Organ 2004;82:330–7. doi:10.1590/S0042-96862004000500006.
[12] Anastario M, Shehab N, Lawry L. Increased Gender-based Violence Among Women Internally Displaced in Mississippi 2 Years Post–Hurricane Katrina. Disaster Med Public Health Prep 2009;3:18–26. doi:10.1097/DMP.0b013e3181979c32.
[13] Sexual Violence Common At Japanese Shelters After Earthquake | NEWS JUNKIE POST n.d. http://newsjunkiepost.com/2012/07/12/sexual-violence-common-at-japanese-shelters-after-earthquake/ (accessed April 23, 2016).
[14] Chan KL, Zhang Y. Female Victimization and Intimate Partner Violence After the May 12, 2008, Sichuan Earthquake. Violence Vict 2011;26:364–76. doi:10.1891/0886-6708.26.3.364.
[15] Haiti Overview n.d. http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/haiti/overview (accessed April 22, 2016).
[16] Humanitarian assistance, emergency relief, rehabilitation, recovery and reconstruction in response to the humanitarian emergency in Haiti, including the devastating effects of the earthquake : draft resolution / Andorra, Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Czech Republic, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Guatemala, Haiti, Hungary, Ireland, Luxembourg, Mexico, Monaco, Netherlands, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Russian Federation, Saint Lucia, Spain, Sweden, United States of America and Uruguay 2010.
[17] IOM-PortauPrince-Haiti n.d. http://www.iomhaitidataportal.info/dtm/index2.aspx (accessed April 22, 2016).
[18] Gage AJ, Hutchinson PL. Power, control, and intimate partner sexual violence in Haiti. Arch Sex Behav 2006;35:11–24. doi:10.1007/s10508-006-8991-0.
[19] Gage AJ. Women’s experience of intimate partner violence in Haiti. Soc Sci Med 1982 2005;61:343–64. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.11.078.
[20] Small MJ, Gupta J, Frederic R, Joseph G, Theodore M, Kershaw T. Intimate partner and nonpartner violence against pregnant women in rural Haiti. Int J Gynecol Obstet 2008;102:226–31. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2008.05.008.
[21] Kolbe A, Muggah R. Opinion | Haiti’s Silenced Victims. N Y Times 2012.
[22] Sexual Violence in Haiti’s IDP Camps: Results of a Household Survey - NYU School of Law – CHRGJ n.d. https://chrgj.org/document-center/sexual-violence-in-haitis-idp-camps-results-of-a-household-survey/ (accessed May 9, 2018).
[23] Haiti 2012 Mortality, Morbidity, and Service Utilization Survey - Key Findings [SR199.eng] - SR199.eng.pdf n.d.
[24] Guide to DHS statistics. | POPLINE.org n.d. https://www.popline.org/node/238990 (accessed May 9, 2018).
[25] The DHS Program - Wealth Index Construction n.d. https://www.dhsprogram.com/topics/wealth-index/Wealth-Index-Construction.cfm (accessed May 14, 2018).
[26] Kolbe AR, Hutson RA, Shannon H, Trzcinski E, Miles B, Levitz N, et al. Mortality, crime and access to basic needs before and after the Haiti earthquake: a random survey of Port-au-Prince households. Med Confl Surviv 2010;26:281–97. doi:10.1080/13623699.2010.535279.
[27] Iacus S, King G, Porro G. Causal Inference Without Balance Checking: Coarsened Exact Matching. Polit Anal 2011.
[28] Glaeser EL, Sacerdote B. Why Is There More Crime in Cities? J Polit Econ 1999;107:S225–58. doi:10.1086/250109.
[29] Kolbe AR, Muggah R. Results from Monthly Household Surveys 2012:9.
[30] Kawachi I, Kennedy BP, Wilkinson RG. Crime: social disorganization and relative deprivation. Soc Sci Med 1999;48:719–31. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(98)00400-6.
[31] Schuller M. Impact of NGOs on Human Rights for Port-au- Prince’s Internally Displaced People n.d.:55.
[32] Cohen LE, Felson M. Social Change and Crime Rate Trends: A Routine Activity Approach. Am Sociol Rev 1979;44:588–608.
[33] Curtis T, Miller BC, Berry EH. Changes in reports and incidence of child abuse following natural disasters. Child Abuse Negl 2000;24:1151–62. doi:10.1016/S0145-2134(00)00176-9.
[34] Survivors of sexual assault in Haiti - CNN n.d. https://edition.cnn.com/2016/12/08/world/cnnphotos-sexual-assault-haiti/index.html (accessed March 27, 2018).
[35] Zahran S, Shelley TO, Peek LA, Brody SD. Natural disasters and social order: modeling crime outcomes in Florida. 2009.
[36] Jewkes R, Levin J, Penn-Kekana L. Risk factors for domestic violence: findings from a South African cross-sectional study. Soc Sci Med 2002;55:1603–17. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00294-5.
[37] Against Their Will: Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Against Young People in Haiti. MSF USA 2017. https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/article/against-their-will-sexual-and-gender-based-violence-against-young-people-haiti (accessed March 27, 2018).
[38] Videotaped gang rape in Haiti sparks debate on sexual violence. Dly Nation n.d. https://www.nation.co.ke/news/world/Videotaped-gang-rape-in-Haiti/1068-3790248-ouf8xa/index.html (accessed March 16, 2018).
[39] DesRoches R, Comerio M, Eberhard M, Mooney W, Rix GJ. Overview of the 2010 Haiti Earthquake. Earthq Spectra 2011;27:S1–21. doi:10.1193/1.3630129.
[40] Haiti: Internal displacement, forced evictions, statelessness – the catalogue to violations continue. Amnesty Int 2016:12.
[41] Refugees UNHC for. Sexual Violence Against Refugees: Guidelines on Prevention and Response (UNHCR). UNHCR n.d. http://www.unhcr.org/publications/operations/3b9cc26c4/sexual-violence-against-refugees-guidelines-prevention-response-unhcr.html (accessed October 1, 2016).