臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

Smoke emission from biomass fuels is an important source of indoor air pollution which contains pollutants that are detrimental to health. In Eswatini, 62.3% of the households still rely on solid fuel for cooking, especially wood (61.8%). However, a quantitative exposure assessment study is not available in Eswatini.
Therefore, this study aims to monitor carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration during cooking hours and to assess the cancer and non-cancer risk from the exposure of particulate bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during cooking hours for cooking personnel in households cooking indoor using biomass fuel in the Shiselweni region.
Real time monitoring of CO and CO2 and sampling of particulate matter was conducted in seventeen kitchens during cooking hours in the Shiselweni region among homesteads using different cooking methods; biomass in open fire, biomass stove, liquid petroleum gas stove and electric stove.
PM2.5, PM10 and CO were reported to exceed the indoor exposure guideline in homesteads using biomass fuel. The toxicity for PAHs was estimated using benzo[a]pyrene equivalent (BaPeq) concentrations. The order for BaPeq concentrations was open fire using biomass > biomass stove > electricity stove > liquid petroleum gas stove. The incremental lifetime cancer risk and the hazard quotient were calculated based on the evaluation of particulate PAHs intake concentration, which showed that biomass fuel users have a high risk of adverse health effects from PAHs exposure.

Table of Contents
Acknowledgement i
Abstract ii
List of Tables v
List of Figures v
Chapter 1. Introduction 1
1.1. Significance of the study 2
1.2. Main Objectives 4
1.2.1. Specific Objectives 4
Chapter 2. Literature review 5
2.1. Factors contributing to high pollutants during cooking 5
2.2 Hazardous compounds from cooking with biomass 7
2.2.1. Particulate matter 8
2.2.2. Carbon monoxide 9
2.2.3. PAHs 10
2.3. Adverse health effects resulting from exposure to biomass burning 11
2.3.1. Acute lower respiratory infection 12
2.3.2. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and chronic bronchitis 12
2.3.3. Tuberculosis 13
2.3.4. Lung cancer 13
2.3.5. Non-respiratory diseases 15
2.4. Previous studies in Eswatini 16
Chapter 3. Methodology 17
3.1. Study Setting 17
3.2. On-site sampling 17
3.3. Inclusion criteria 18
3.4. Real time monitoring 18
3.5. Particulate matter sampling 19
3.6. Filter paper weighing and particulate matter calculation 19
3.7. PM-bound PAHs analysis 20
3.7.1. Quality assurance and Quality Control 21
3.8. Calculation of BaPeq concentration 22
3.9. Cooking source emission strength 22
3.10. Health risk assessment 24
3.10.1 Incremental lifetime cancer risk 24
3.10.2 Hazard Quotient 25
3.11. Statistical analyses 26
Chapter 4. Results 27
4.1. Particulate matter, Carbon monoxide and Carbon dioxide emission 27
4.2. PM-bound PAHs emission from cooking activities in household kitchens 29
4.3. The sum of BaPeq concentrations of PAHs 31
4.4. Cancer risk 31
4.5. Non-cancer risk 32
4.6. Cooking source emission strength 32
4.7. Statistics analysis 34
Chapter 5. Discussion 35
5.1. Particulate Matter, Carbon Monoxide and Carbon dioxide 35
5.1.1. Particulate matter, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide emitted across different cooking methods 36
5.1.2. Source emission strength of particulate matter, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide 38
5.2. Particulate matter bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 38
5.3. BaPeq of particulate matter bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 40
5.4. Cancer risk from exposure to PM-bound PAHs during cooking 42
5.5. Non-cancer risk from exposure to PM-bound PAHs during cooking 43
5.6 Health effects 43
Chapter 6. Policy Implications 45
Capter 7. Limitations 47
Chapter 8. Conclusion 48
References 49
Tables 54
Figures 67
Appendix 77
1. The time profile of CO and CO2 concentration obtained from the 17 sites. 77
Sites a-c use electricity, d-f use LPG, g-k use stove (biomass) and l-q use open fire. 77
2. The time profile of PM2.5, PM 10, CO and CO2 concentration obtained from the first 3 sites. 80


List of Tables
Table 1: Summary of the health effects associated with biomass fuel 54
Table 2: Toxic equivalent factor, number of rings and cancer evidence of each PAH 58
Table 3.Characteristics of cooking area 59
Table 4.Sampling and cooking characteristics per site 60
Table 5. Carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate matter (PM) concentrations during cooking and non-cooking hours 62
Table 6. BaPeq derived from PM bound PAHs sampled during cooking and non –cooking hours, as well as ILCR and HQ derived from BaPeq concentrations during cooking 63
Table 7. Air exchange rate and pollutant used to calculate the air exchange rate among the sites 64
Table 8. Cooking source emission strength of the pollutants emitted during cooking hours 65
Table 9. Spearman’s rho correlation between BaPeqand PM, CO and CO2 65
Table 10. Indoor pollutants from cooking reported in similar studies 66

List of Figures
Figure 1. Location and type of fuel used for cooking in the sampling sites 67
Figure 2. Cooking in an open fire on site 3 68
Figure 3. Starting the fire using a plastic bag on site 9 68
Figure 4. Cooking using LPG on site 13 69
Figure 5. Two plate LPG stove on site 17 69
Figure 6. Cooking using four plate electricity on site 5 70
Figure 7. two plate electricity stove on site 10 70
Figure 8. Monitoring and sampling equipment in site 1 kitchen 71
Figure 9. Filter papers in the dry box 71
Figure 10. Filter paper placed against the air ionizer 71
Figure 11.Filter paper weighing 72
Figure 12. Filter paper after sampling 72
Figure 13. Site 3 constructed from stick and mud walls and thatched roof 72
Figure 14. Site 16 constructed from cement block walls and corrugated iron roof 73
Figure 15.WHO recommended guideline for indoor particultate matter and carbon monoxide cut-off 73
Figure 16. The distribution of individual particulate bound PAHs emission sampled before the onset of cooking 74
Figure 17. Particulate LM-PAHs (2 and 3 rings), MM-PAHs (4 rings) and HM-PAHs (more than 4 rings) sampled before the onset of cooking 74
Figure 18. The distribution of individual particulate bound PAHs emission sampled during cooking hours 75
Figure 19. Particulate LM-PAHs (2 and 3 rings), MM-PAHs (4 rings) and HM-PAHs (more than 4 rings) sampled during cooking activity hours 75
Figure 20. Chimney position on Site 11 (a) and site 4 (b) 76

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