臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

本研究使用LENA家庭式錄音追蹤分析7、9、11個月嬰兒的發聲量及典型喃語之表現，探討自然互動中成人使用嬰兒導向式語言對嬰幼兒語言表達能力之影響，以及嬰兒的語音表現和2歲語言表達能力之關聯性。本研究含七位嬰幼兒受試者，分別於7、9、11個月大時進行每個月4至6次的全天候家庭錄音。研究結果顯示嬰兒典型喃語比例隨月齡增加，11個月顯著大於7個月，意味嬰兒出現語音形式的進展。成人語言刺激量方面，成人使用的嬰兒導向式語言量與嬰兒發聲量無顯著關聯性，但與嬰兒典型喃語比例呈顯著負相關。雖成人嬰兒導向式語言未直接提升嬰兒典型喃語比例，但若與兩歲語言表達能力比較，本研究發現家庭環境中成人所使用的嬰兒導向式語言量及嬰兒時期的典型喃語比例，皆與未來兩歲時的語言表達能力呈顯著正相關，即嬰兒環境中的語言刺激量和嬰兒自身的語音能力，皆是影響兩歲語言表達能力的重要因素。透過追蹤性研究，本研究證實華語嬰兒的典型喃語比例會隨月齡增長，且與日後幼兒語言表達能力具重要相關性。

This study used LENA home recordings to collect infant vocalizations, and to explore the development of canonical babbling ratios (CBRs), the effects of infant-directed speech on infants’ prelinguistic development, and the relations between infants’ canonical babbling and their expressive language at 2 years old. The study included seven mother-infant dyads. All data collections were completed using LENA recorders conducted at home environments when subjects were at 7, 9, and 11 months. The recordings were selected and coded manually to obtain a representative sample of the child’s CBRs and caregiver’s infant-directed speech at each age. When the child reached 2 years old, we used two standardized assessment tools (i.e. MCDI-T and CLST) to assess the child’s vocabulary size and expressive language. Results showed that the mean of children’s canonical babbling ratios increases significantly from 7 months to 11 months. The amount of infant-directed speech that infants received during infancy is negatively correlated with CBRs, but positively correlated with their expressive language scores at 2 years. More importantly, CBRs in infancy is significantly correlated with infants’ vocabulary size and expressive language at 2 years old, showing how infants’ canonical babbling lay foundation for their later acquisition of vocabulary and morpho-syntactic abilities. This study not only sheds light on the importance of canonical babbling as one of the earliest red flags of language delay and language disorder, but also provides crucial crosslinguistic evidence about infants’ prelinguistic development in the Mandarin-speaking population.

謝誌 i
中文摘要 ii
Abstract iii
目錄 iv
圖目錄 vi
表目錄 vii
第一章 緒論 1
第一節 研究背景與動機 1
第二節 研究目的與研究問題 7
第三節 名詞釋義 9
第二章 文獻探討 12
第一節 嬰兒語音發展理論背景 12
第二節 成人說話量對嬰兒語音表現的影響 24
第三節 嬰兒語音發展與兩歲語言表達能力之關係及相關因素 27
第三章 研究方法 37
第一節 研究流程 37
第二節 研究參與者 38
第三節 嬰兒語音錄製實驗設置 39
第四節 研究工具 41
第五節 語音編碼 45
第六節 資料分析 50
第四章 研究結果 54
第一節 人工編碼與電腦編碼之一致性 54
第二節 嬰兒語音表現 58
第三節 成人說話量對嬰兒語音表現之影響 69
第四節 影響幼兒兩歲語言表達能力的因素 83
第五章 研究討論及建議 98
第一節 結論及綜合討論 98
第二節 研究建議 106
參考文獻 111
附錄一　成人口語互動情境判斷方式 120
附錄二　嬰兒導向式語言情緒編碼 121

劉惠美、林郡儀（民106）。華語遲語幼兒及典型語言發展幼兒的表達性詞彙發展。特殊教育研究學刊，42卷1期，27-50。doi: 10.6172/BSE.2017.03.4201002
劉惠美、曹峰銘（2010）。華語嬰幼兒溝通發展量表之編製與應用。中華心理衛生學刊，23卷4期，503-534。doi:10.30074/FJMH.201012_23(4).0001
劉惠美、曹峰銘（2010）。華語嬰幼兒溝發展量表（台灣版）指導手冊。臺北：心理。
劉惠美、陳昱君（2015）。華語嬰幼兒表達性詞彙的語意內容及詞類組成之發展。教育心理學報，47（2），217-242。doi: 10.6251/BEP.20150205.
錡寶香（2002）。嬰幼兒溝通能力之發展：家長的長期追蹤記錄。教育特殊學報，16，23-64。doi：10.6768/JSE
Bateson, M. C. (1979). The epigenesis of conversational interaction: A personal account of research development. In M. Bullowa (Ed.), Before speech : The beginning of human communication (pp. 63–77). London: Cambridge University Press.
Belardi, K., Watson, L. R., Faldowski, R. A., Hazlett, H., Crais, E., Baranek, G. T., McComish, C., Patten, E., and Oller, D. K. (2017). A Retrospective Video Analysis of Canonical Babbling and Volubility in Infants with Fragile X Syndrome at 9–12 Months of Age. J Autism Dev Disord, 47, 1193-1206. doi:10.1007/s10803-017-3033-4
Bloom, K., Russell, A., and Wassenberg, K. (1987). Turn taking affects the quality of infant vocalizations. Journal of Child Language, 14(2), 211-227. doi:10.1017/S0305000900012897
Boersma, P. and Weenink, D. (2001). PRAAT, a system for doing phonetics by computer. Glot International 5(9/10): 341-345.
Canault, M., Le Normand, M. T., Foudil, S., Loundon, N. and Thai-Van, H. (2016). Reliability of the Language ENvironment Analysis system (LENA™) in European French. Behavior Research Method, 48(3), 1109-1124. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-015-0634-8
Cartmill, E. A., Armstrong, B. F., Gleitman, L. R., Goldin- Meadow, S., Medina, T. N., and Trueswell, J. C. (2013). Quality of early parent input predicts child vocabulary 3 years later. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(28), 11278-11283. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1309518110
Chapman, K. L., Hardin-Jones, M., Schulte, J., and Halter, K. A. (2001). Vocal Development of 9-Month-Old Babies with Cleft Palate. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 44, 1268-1283. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2001/099)
Chapman, K. L., Hardin-Jones, M., and Halter, K. A. (2003). The relationship between early speech and later speech and language performance for children with cleft lip and palate. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 17(3), 173-197. doi:10.1080/0269920021000047864
Cychosz, M., Cristia, A, Bergelson, E., Casillas, M., Baudet, G., Warlaumont, A. S., Scaff, C., Yankowitz, L., and Seidl, A. (2021). Vocal development in a large-scale crosslinguistic corpus. Developmental Science, 24(5), e13090. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13090
Dale, P. S., Price, T. S., Bishop, D. V. M., & Plomin, R. (2003). Outcomes of Early Language Delay. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research, 46(3), 544. doi:10.1044/1092-4388(2003/044)
D'Odorico, L. and Jacob, V. (2006). Prosodic and lexical aspects of maternal linguistic input to late-talking toddlers. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 41(3), 293-311. doi:10.1080/13682820500342976
Donnellan, E., Bannard, C., McGillion, M., Slocombe, K., and Matthews, D. (2019). Infants’ intentionally communicative vocalisations elicit responses from caregivers and are the best predictors of the transitions to language: A longitudinal investigation of infants’ vocalisations, gestures, and word production. Developmental Science, e12843. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12843
Donnelly, S. and Kidd, E. (2021). The Longitudinal Relationship Between Conversational Turn-Taking and Vocabulary Growth in Early Language Development. Child Development, 92(2), 609-625.doi: 10.1111/cdev.13511
Eilers, R. E., Oller, D. K., Levine, S., Basinger, D., Lynch, M. P., and Urbano, R. (1993). The role of prematurity and socioeconomic status in the onset of canonical babbling in infants. Infant Behavior and Development, 116(3), 297-315. doi:10.1016/0163-6383(93)80037-9.
Eilers, R. E. and Oller, D. K. (1994). Infant vocalizations and the early diagnosis of severe hearing impairment. The Journal of Pediatrics, 124(2), 0-203. doi:10.1016/s0022-3476(94)70303-5
Fasolo, M., Majorano, M., and D'Odorico, L. (2008). Babbling and first words in children with slow expressive development. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 22(2), 83-94. doi: 10.1080/02699200701600015
Fenson, L., Dale, P., Reznick, J. S., Bates, E., Thal, D., Pethick, S., Tomasello, M., Mervis, C. B., and Stiles, J. (1994). Variability in early communicative development. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(5), 1-185. doi: 10.2307/1166093
Gilkerson, J., Richards, J. A., Warren, S. F., Montgomery, J. K., Greenwood, C. R., Oller, D. K., Hansen, J. H. L., and Paul, T. D. (2017). Mapping the Early Language Environment Using All-Day Recordings and Automated Analysis. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 26(2), 248-265. doi:10.1044/2016_AJSLP-15-0169
Goldstein, M. H., King, A. P., and West, M. J. (2003). Social interaction shapes babbling: Testing parallels between birdsong and speech. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(13), 8030-8035. doi:10.1073/pnas.1332441100
Goldstein, M. H. and Schwade, J. A. (2008). Social Feedback to Infants' Babbling Facilitates Rapid Phonological Learning. Psychological Science, 19(5), 515-523. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02117.x
Hirsh-Pasek, K., Adamson, L. B., Bakeman, R., Owen, M. T., Golinkoff, R. M., Pace, A., Yust, P. K. S., and Suma, K. (2015). The contribution of early communication quality to low-income children’s language success. Psychological Science, 26(7), 1071-1083. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615581493
Hoff-Ginsberg, E. (2003). The specificity of environmental influence: Socioeconomic status affects early vocabulary development via maternal speech. Child Development, 74(5), 1368-1378. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00612
Hoff-Ginsberg, E. (1991). Mother-child conversation in different social classes and communicative settings. Child Development, 62, 782-796. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131177
Hurtado, N., Marchman, V. A., and Fernald, A. (2008). Does input influence uptake? Links between maternal talk, processing speed and vocabulary size in Spanish-learning children. Developmental Science, 11, 31-39. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00768.x
Huttenlocher, J., Haight, W., Bryk, A., Selzer, M., and Lyons, T. (1991). Early vocabulary growth: Relation to language input and gender. Developmental Psychology, 27, 236-248. doi:10.0012-1649/91/S3.O0
Huttenlocher, J., Waterfall, H., Vasilyeva, M., Vevea, J., and Hedges, L. V. (2010). Sources of variability in children’ language growth. Cognitive Psychology, 61, 343-365. doi: 10.1016/j.cogpsych.2010.08.002
Iyer, S. N., Denson, H., Lazar, N., and Oller, D. K. (2016). Volubility of the human infant: Effects of parental interaction (or lack of it). Clinical linguistics & phonetics, 30(6), 470-488. http://dx.doi.org/10.3109/02699206.2016.1147082
Kita, S.(Ed.). (2003). Pointing: Where language, culture, and cognition meet. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Lee, J. (2011). Size matters: Early vocabulary as a predictor of language and literacy competence. Applied Psycholinguistics, 32(1), 69-92. doi:10.1017/s0142716410000299
Lee, C. C., Jhang, Y., Relyea, G., Chen, L. M., and Oller, D. K. (2018). Babbling development as seen in canonical babbling ratios: a naturalistic evaluation of all-day recordings. Infant Behav Dev, 50, 140-153. doi: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2017.12.002
Lewedag, V. L. (1995). Patterns of onset of canonical babbling among typically developing infants. (Unpublished doctoral dissertation).
Lewedag, V. L., Oller, D. K., and Lynch, M. P. (1994). Infants' vocalization patterns across home and laboratory environments. First Language, 14(40), 49-65. doi:10.1177/014272379401404004
Locke, J. L. (1994). Gradual Emergence of Developmental Language Disorders. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research, 37(3), 608-616. doi:10.1044/jshr.3703.608
Lohmander, A., Holm, K., Eriksson, S., and Lieberman, M. (2017). Observation method identifies that a lack of canonical babbling can indicate future speech and language problems. Acta Paediatr, 106(6), 935-943. doi:10.1111/apa.13816
Long, H. L., Bowman, D.D., Yoo, H., BurkhardtReed, M. M., Bene, E. R., and Oller, D. K. (2020). Social and endogenous infant vocalizations. PLoS ONE, 15(8): e0224956. doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0224956
Long, H. L., Ramsay, G., Bowman, D. D., Burkhardt-Reed, M. M., and Oller, D. K. (2020). Social and endogenous motivations in the emergence of canonical babbling: An autism risk study. (Unpublished). doi: 10.1101/2020.10.09.333872
Lopez, L. D., Walle, E. A., Pretzer, G. M., Warlaumont, A. S. (2020). Adult responses to infant prelinguistic vocalizations are associated with infant vocabulary: A home observation study. PLoS ONE 15(11), e0242232. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242232
Lyakso, E. E., Frolova, O. V., and Grigorev, A. S. (2014). Infant vocalizations at the first year of life predict speech development at 2-7 years: Longitudinal study. Psychology, 5(12), 1433-1445. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2014.512154.
Lynch, M. P., Oller, D. K., Steffens, M. L., and Buder, E. H. (1995). Phrasing in prelinguistic vocalizations. Developmental Psychobiology, 28(1), 3-25. doi:10.1002/dev.420280103
Marschik, P. B., Pini, G., Bartl-Pokorny, K. D., Duckworth, M., Gugatschka, M., and Vollmann, R. (2012). Early speech-language development in females with Rett syndrome: focusing on the preserved speech variant. Dev Med Child Neurol, 54(5), 451-456. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2012. 04123.x
Masataka, N. (2001). Why early linguistic milestones are delayed in children with Williams syndrome: late onset of hand banging as a possible rate–limiting constraint on the emergence of canonical babbling. Developmental Science, 4(2), 158-164. doi:10.1111/1467-7687.00161.
McGillion, M. L., Herbert, J. S., Pine, J. M., Keren-Portnoy, T., Vihman, M. M., and Matthews, D. E. (2013). Supporting Early Vocabulary Development: What Sort of Responsiveness Matters? IEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development, 5(3), 240-248. doi:10.1109/tamd.2013.2275949
McGillion, M. L., Herbert, J. S., Pine, J., Vihman, M. M., DePaolis, R., Keren-Portnoy, T., and Matthews, D. (2017). What paves the way to conventional language? The predictive value of babble, pointing, and socioeconomic status. Child Development, 88(1), 156-166. doi:10.1111/cdev.12671
Morales, M., Mundy, P., Delgado, C. E. F., Yale, M., Messinger, D., Neal, R., and Schwartz, H. K. (2000). Responding to Joint Attention Across the 6- Through 24-Month Age Period and Early Language Acquisition. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 21(3), 283-298. doi:10.1016/s0193-3973(99)00040-4
Mirak, J. and Rescorla, L. (1998). Phonetic skills and vocabulary size in late talkers: Concurrent and predictive relationships. Applied Psycholinguistics, 19(1), 1-17. doi:10.1017/S0142716400010559
Nathani, S., Ertmer, D. J., and Stark, R. E. (2006). Assessing vocal development in infants and toddlers. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 20(5), 351-369. doi:10.1080/02699200500211451
Oller, D. K. (2000). The Emergence of the Speech Capacity: Psychology Press.
Oller, D. K., Eilers, R. E., Steffens, M. L., Lynch, M. P., and Urbano, R. (1994). Speech-like vocalizations in infancy: an evaluation of potential risk factors. Journal of Child Language, 21(1), 33-58. doi:10.1017/S0305000900008667
Oller, D. Κ., Eilers, R. E., Urbano, R., and Cobo-Lewis, A. B. (1997). Development of precursors to speech in infants exposed to two languages. Journal of Child Language, 27, 407-425. doi: 10.1017/s0305000997003097.
Oller, D. Κ., Eilers, R. E., Neal, A. R., and Cobo-Lewis, A. B. (1998). Late onset canonical babbling: A possible early marker of abnormal development. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 103, 249-265. doi: 10.1352/0895-8017(1998)103<0249:LOCBAP>2.0.CO;2.
Oller, D. Κ., Eilers, R. E., Neal, A. R., and Schwartz, Η. K. (1999). Precursors to speech in infancy: The prediction of speech and language disorders. Journal of Communication Disorders, 32(4), 223-246. doi: 10.1016/s0021-9924(99)00013-1.
Oller, D. K., Niyogi, P., Gray, S., Richards, J., Gilkerson, J., and Xu, D. (2010). Automated vocal analysis of naturalistic recordings from children with autism, language delay, and typical development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(30), 13354-13359. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1003882107.
Oller, D. K., Griebel, U., and Warlaumont, A. S. (2016). Vocal Development as a Guide to Modeling the Evolution of Language. Topics in Cognitive Science, 8, 382-392. doi: 10.1111/tops.12198. Epub 2016 Mar 2.
Oller, D. K., Ramsay, G., Bene, E. R. Long, H. L., and Griebel, U. (2021). Protophones, the precursors to speech, dominate the infant vocal landscape. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. B. 376: 20200255. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rstb.2020.0255
Patten, E., Belardi, K., Baranek, G. T., Watson, L. R., Labban, J. D., and Oller, D. K. (2014). Vocal patterns in infants with autism spectrum disorder: canonical babbling status and vocalization frequency. J Autism Dev Disord, 44(10), 2413-2428. doi:10.1007/s10803-014-2047-4.
Patterson (1998). Expressive Vocabulary Development and Word Combinations of Spanish-English Bilingual Toddlers. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 7(4), 46-56. doi:10.1044/1058-0360.0704.46
Ramírez, N. F., Lytle, S. R., and Kuhl, P. K. (2020). Parent coaching increases conversational turns and advances infant language development. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117(7), 3484-3491. doi:10.1073/pnas.1921653117
Rescorla, L. (1989). The Language Development Survey: A Screening Tool for Delayed Language in Toddlers. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 54(4), 587- 599. doi:10.1044/jshd.5404.587
Rescorla, L. and Ratner, N. B. (1996). Phonetic Profiles of Toddlers with Specific Expressive Language Impairment(SLI-E). Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research, 39(1), 153-165. doi:10.1044/jshr.3901.153
Rescorla, L., Mirak, J., and Singh, L. (2000). Vocabulary Growth in Late Talkers: Lexical Development from 2;0 to 3;0. Journal of Child Language, 27, 293-311. doi: 10.1017/s030500090000413x.
Ring, E. D. and Fenson, L. (2000). The correspondence between parent report and child performance for receptive and expressive vocabulary beyond infancy. First Language, 20(59), 141-159. doi:10.1177/014272370002005902
Rochat, P., Querido, J., and Striano, T. (1999). Emerging sensitivity to the timing and structure of protoconversation in early infancy. Developmental Psychology, 35, 950-957. doi:10.0012-1649/99/$3.00
Rowe, M. L. (2008). Child-directed speech: Relation to socioeconomic status, knowledge of child development and child vocabulary skill. Journal of Child Language, 35, 185-205. doi: 10.1017/s0305000907008343.
Rowe, M. L. (2012). A longitudinal investigation of the role of quantity and quality of child-directed speech vocabulary development. Child Development, 83(5), 1762-1774. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01805.x
Rowe, M. L., Ozcaliskan, S., and Goldin-Meadow, S. (2008). Learning words by hand: Gesture's role in predicting vocabulary development. First Language, 28(2), 182-199. doi:10.1177/0142723707088310
Rollins, P. R. (2003). Caregivers’ contingent comments to 9-month-old infants: Relationships with later language. Applied Psycholinguistics, 24, 221-234. doi: 10.1017.S0142716403000110
Smolak, L. and Weinraub, M. (1983). Maternal speech: Strategy or response? Journal of Child Language, 10, 369-380. DOI: 10.1017/S0305000900007820
Stoel-Gammon, C. (1985). Phonetic Inventories, 15–24 Months. Journal of Speech Language and Hearing Research, 28(4), 505-512. doi:10.1044/jshr.2804.505
Stoel-Gammon, C. (1989). Prespeech and early speech development of two late talkers. First Language, 9(6), 207-223. doi:10.1177/014272378900900607
Stoel-Gammon, C. (1991). Normal and disordered phonology in two-year-olds. Topics in Language Disorders, 11(4), 21–32. doi:10.1097/00011363-199111040-00005
Swanson, M. R., Donovan, K., Paterson, S., Wolff, J. J., Parish-Morris, J., Meera, S. S., Watson, L. R., Estes, A. M., Marrus, N., Elison, J. T., Shen, M. D., McNeilly, H. B., MacIntyre, L., Zwaigenbaum, L., St. J. T., Botteron, K., Dager, S.., and Piven, J. (2019). Early language exposure supports later language skills in infants with and without autism. Autism Research, 12(12), 1784-1795. doi:10.1002/aur.2163
Tomasello, M. (2003). Constructing a language: A usage-based theory of language acquisition. Harvard, MA: Harvard University Press.
Tomasello, M. and Farrar, M. J. (1986). Joint attention and early language. Child Development, 57, 1454-1463. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130423
Wang, Y., Hartman, M., Abdul Aziz, N. A., Arora, S., Shi, L., and Tunison, E. (2017). A systematic review of the use of LENA technology. American Annals of the Deaf, 162(3), 295-311. doi: 10.1353/aad.2017.0028.
Warren, S. F., Gilkerson, J., Richards, J. A., Oller, D. K., Xu, D., Yapanel, U., and Gray, S. (2010). What automated vocal analysis reveals about the vocal production and language learning environment of young children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40(5), 555-569. doi:10.1007/s10803-009-0902-5
Watson, J. S. (1972). Smiling, Cooing, And "The Game". Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, 18(4), 323–339. doi:10.2307/23084026
Weisleder, A. and Fernald, A. (2013). Talking to Children Matters: Early Language Experience Strengthens Processing and Builds Vocabulary. Psychological Science, 24(11), 2143-2152. doi:10.1177/0956797613488145
Xu, D., Yapanel, U., and Gray, S. (2009). Reliability of the LENA Language Environment Analysis System in young children’s natural home environment (Technical Report LTR-05-2). Boulder, CO: LENA Foundation. Retrieved 6 December, 2013, from www.lenafoundation.org/TechReport.aspx/Reliability/LTR-05-2
Yoo, H., Bowman, D. A., and Oller, D. K. (2018). The Origin of Protoconversation: An Examination of Caregiver Responses to Cry and Speech-Like Vocalizations. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 1510. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01510
Zimmerman, F. J., Gilkerson, J., Richards, J. A., Christakis, D. A., Xu, D., Gray, S., and Yapanel, U. (2009). Teaching by Listening: The Importance of Adult-Child Conversations to Language Development. Pediatrics, 124(1), 342-349. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-2267