臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

水體中的高污染營養物質(如氮和磷酸鹽)會引發藍綠藻等藻類大量繁殖。這種微藻細胞造成了嚴重的水質問題，包括增加消毒副產物(disinfection by-products, DBPs)生成潛能，並降低水廠淨水處理效率。基於時間效率與經濟性考量，鋁電極之電混凝法已被證明是一種有效分離微藻細胞的方法。本研究中，一種新電混凝-絮凝-浮除(electrocoagulation-flocculation-flotation, EFF)系統被設計用於銅綠微囊藻(Microcystis aeruginosa, MA)細胞分離和削減藻類有機物(algogenic organic matter, AOM）。EFF實驗在不同的pH值 (pH 5、7、8)及電流密度(3、5、10 mA/cm2)進行，並分析鋁水解物種對其效能之影響。此外，本研究同時評估磷酸鹽濃度(5、10 mg/L-PO43-)在最適操作條件下對EFF效能之影響。另外，使用掃描電子顯微鏡和能量色散X射線光譜法進一步觀察膠羽特性與化學元素組成，以確認EFF對微藻細胞之去除機制。最後，分析EFF處理後之水樣之分子量分佈、DBPs生成潛能與能源使用效率。
研究結果顯示，在pH 8和5 mA/cm2條件下進行的EFF可以達到95%的MA細胞分離和56%的AOM消減效率，類可溶性微生物產物(SMPL)和類芳香族蛋白(APL)物質是AOM削減之主要貢獻者。在一開始操作EFF時，約80%的單體鋁物種(Ala)轉化為聚合鋁物種(Alb)和膠體鋁物種(Alc)，此結果導致了強烈沉澱掃除與弱電性中和混凝機制主導了藻類細胞的分離。在相似的MA去除效率下，EFF的能量輸入需求(2.07×10-2 kWh/kg)較傳統電混凝-浮除(electro-coagulation-flotation, ECF)系統低63%。另一方面，10 mg/L-PO43-的存在會使細小和鬆散結構的絮狀物形成而降低EFF對藻類分離的性能。此外，EFF對低分子量化合物及DBPs前質削減並不明顯。然而，EFF可以通過提高電流密度克服高濃度磷酸鹽降低藻類分離效能之問題。因此，EFF是一個高能源效率之系統，其適用於分離含藻原水，並可同時進行磷之削減處理。

The high pollutant nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphate in water bodies can trigger algal blooms like microcell cyanobacteria. This microcell caused severe water quality problems, including increased disinfection by-products (DBPs) formation potential and reduced treatment efficiency while entering the water treatment plant. Alumina-based electrocoagulation has proved as a means of microcell separation due to its time effectiveness and economic aspect. In this study, a novel electrocoagulation-flocculation-flotation (EFF) system was designated toward Microcystis aeruginosa (MA) cells separation and algogenic organic matter (AOM) reduction. EFF performance on various pH (pH 5, 7, 8), CD (3, 5, 10 mA/cm2), and the effect of alumina hydrate investigations. In addition, the impact of phosphate concentrations (i.e., 5, 10 mg/L-PO43-) were evaluated. Further observation was carried out with scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) to determine the mechanism of algae removal during EFF. In addition, fractionated molecular weight, DBP formation potential reduction, and energy input were further quantified.
The results have shown that EFF performed at pH 8 and 5 mA/cm2 could achieve 95% of MA cells separation and 56% of AOM reduction, with soluble microbial product-like (SMPL) as the main contributors, accounting for 60%. The formation of dominant colloidal Al species (Alc) governs the EFF to promote cells and AOM destabilization by strong sweep flocculation along with weak charge neutralization by polymeric Al species (Alb). At such a conditions, EFF requires only 2.07×10-2 kWh/kg in energy input and serves energy saving ~63% less than that by traditional ECF at similar MA cells separation. On the other hand, the presence of 10 mg/L-PO43- could lower the performance of EFF toward MA cells separation and worsen the floc formation with delicate and loose structures. In addition, low molecular weight compounds remain with insignificant reduction of DBPs precursors after EFF treatment. Nevertheless, EFF can overcome the problem with insignificant performance at concentrated phosphate by increasing current density. It is concluded that EFF is a feasible system with an energy-efficient approach and applicable to the separation of algae-laden water simultaneously with dephosphorization.

TABLE OF CONTENT

摘 要 i
ABSTRACT ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iii
TABLE OF CONTENT iv
LIST OF FIGURE vi
LIST OF TABLE ix
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background information 1
1.2 Statement of the problem 4
1.3 Research Objective 4
1.4 Research framework 4
CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW 6
2.1 Cyanobacteria in freshwater 6
2.2 AOM characterizations 8
2.3 The commonly used of algae treatment 9
2.4 Electrocoagulation process 9
2.4.1 Several factors can influence EC process 13
2.5 Electro-flotation process 17
2.6 Energy consumptions 18
2.7 Application of Al-based electrocoagulation for algal cell removal 19
CHAPTER III MATERIALS AND METHODS 22
3.1 Determination of variables and parameters in pre-tests 22
3.2 Methodology 24
3.2.1 Flow cytometer 24
3.2.2 Measurement of zeta potential 24
3.2.3 Measurement of UV-based absorbance 25
3.2.4 Measurement of alumina concentration 26
3.2.5 DOC determination 26
3.2.6 Fluorescence excitation-emission matrix (F-EEM) 26
3.2.7 Observation on cell morphology 28
3.2.8 Analysis of organic molecular weight 29
3.2.9 Analysis of DBP formation potential 30
3.3 Reactor setup 30
3.3.1 Reactor design 30
3.3.2 Experimental protocol 31
CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 33
4.1 EFF on MA cells separations and AOM reduction 33
4.1.1 Effect of current density 33
4.1.2 The effect of pH on MA cell 42
4.1.3 The effect of alumina hydrates on MA cells removal 50
4.1.4 MA cells removal mechanism in the EFF system 54
4.2 Energy Input on EFF process 55
4.3 The effect of phosphate on MA cells separation 57
4.3.1 Effect of phosphate concentration on MA cells removal 57
4.3.2 Effect of phosphate in AOM reduction during EFF process 60
4.3.3 Floc formation behavior during EFF in the presence of phosphates 64
4.3.4 Mechanism of dephosporization during EFF process 68
4.4 DBP formation potential 72
4.5 Energy Input requirement toward algal separation with the presence of phosphate by EFF process 75
4.6 Operating efficiency of EFF and ECF in AOM reduction 77
CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS 80
REFERENCES 81
APPENDIX DATA 89
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY 90
PUBLICATIONS, SEMINAR, AND AWARD 90


LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1.1 Research framework of this study 5
Figure 2.1 Cell morphology of (a) Microcystis aeruginosa and (b) cross-section of cyanobacterial cell 6
Figure 2.2 Important steps of electrocoagulation 10
Figure 2.3 Overlapping of electrical double layers mechanism and interaction energy of the particle 11
Figure 2.4 General Pathways of coagulation; (a) Double layer compression; (b) Charge neutralization; (c) Inter-particle bridging; (d) Sweep coagulation 13
Figure 2.5 Different forms of alumina according to changes in pH during the electrocoagulation process 14
Figure 2.6 Standardized design for coagulation and flocculation 17
Figure 2.7 General pathway of flotation process 18
Figure 3.1 Classified EEM region into soluble microbial product-like (SMPL), humic acid-like (HAL), aromatic protein-like (APL), and fulvic acid-like (FAL) 28
Figure 3.2 Setup of electrocoagulation system 31
Figure 3.3 Diagram of electrocoagulation-flotation (ECF) and electrocoagulation-flocculation-flotation (EFF) process 32
Figure 4.1 Variations of MA cells separation ratio and cell density during EFF at pH 7 with different CD (3, 5, 10 mA/cm2) 34
Figure 4.2 Variations of (a) operational pH, (b) Al release, and (c) zeta potential during EFF at pH 7 with different CD (3, 5, 10 mA/cm2) 35
Figure 4.3 Changes in (a) Floc size formation and (b) Floc morphology during EFF at pH 7 with different CD applied (3, 5, 10 mA/cm2) 37
Figure 4.4 Observation of MA cells with flow cytometer for EFF process at pH 7 with different CD (3, 5, and 10 mA/cm2) 38
Figure 4.5 Variations of (a) DOC concentration and SUVA254, (b) DOC reduction ratio during EFF at pH 7 with different CD (3, 5, 10 mA/cm2) 40
Figure 4.6 Variations of EEM fluorophore in four fraction, (a) soluble microbial products-like (SMPL), (b) aromatic protein-like (APL), (c) humic acid-like (HAL), and (d) fulvic acid-like (FAL) during EFF at pH 7 with different CD (3, 5, 10 mA/cm2) 41
Figure 4.7 Variations in cell separation ratio and cell density during EFF at different pH (pH 5, 7, and 8) with 5 mA/cm2 43
Figure 4.8 Variations in (a) Al release, (b) zeta potential, and (c) floc size during EFF at different pH (5, 7, and 8) with 5 mA/cm2 44
Figure 4.9. Fluorescent contour observation on MA cells during EFF process at different pH (5, 7, and 8) with 5 mA/cm2 46
Figure 4.10 Variations of (a) DOC concentration and SUVA254, (b) DOC reduction ratio during EFF at different pH (pH 5, 7, and 8) with 5 mA/cm2 48
Figure 4.11 Variations of EEM fluorophore in four fraction, (a) soluble microbial products-like (SMPL), (b) aromatic protein-like (APL), (c) humic acid-like (HAL), and (d) fulvic acid-like (FAL) during EFF at different pH (pH 5, 7, and 8) with 5 mA/cm2 50
Figure 4.12 Variation of Al hydrates at (a) various pH conditions (pH 5 to 9), and (b) at pH 8 during 10 minutes EC in the absence of MA cells (CD=5 mA/cm2) 52
Figure 4.13 Liquid-phase SEM imaging for (a) Al hydroxide and (b) cluster formed by Al hydroxide after EFF without MA cells (pH=8; CD=5 mA/cm2) 53
Figure 4.14 Dried-phase SEM imaging for (a) algal floc, (b) Al(OH)3 precipitates patched on MA cell surface and (c) EDS mapping onto Al (cyan) and carbon (red) after EFF with MA cells (pH=8; CD=5 mA/cm2) 54
Figure 4.15 Schematic representation of electrocoagulation-flocculation mechanisms for MA cells destabilization and separation by EFF at pH 8 with 5 mA/cm2 55
Figure 4.16 Energy input for EFF and ECF at various EC reaction time (pH 8 and 5 mA/cm2) 57
Figure 4.17 Variations in cell separation during EFF at optimum conditions (pH 8 and 5 mA cm2) (a) with various phosphate concentration (0, 5, and 10 mg/L of PO43-) and (b) 10 mg/L-PO43- with various current density ( 5, 10, and 15 mA/cm2) 59
Figure 4.18 Variations of (a) DOC and SUVA254, (b)DOC reduction ratio during EFF at optimum conditions (pH 8 and 5 mA/cm2) and various of phosphate (0, 5, and 10 mg/L of phosphate), (c) DOC and SUVA254 (d) DOC reduction ratio at different current density (5, 10, and 15 mA/cm2) 61
Figure 4.19 Variations of EEM fluorophore in four fraction during EFF at optimum conditions (pH 8 and 5 mA cm2; [*] mark is applied at10 mA/cm2 and [**] with 15 mA/cm2) with the existence of various phosphate concentrations (0, 5, and 10 mg/L of PO43-) 63
Figure 4.20 MW distribution of organic before and after EFF at various phosphate concentrations (0, 5, and 10 mg/L of PO43-) 64
Figure 4.21. Effect of various phosphate on (a) Floc size, (b) Fractal dimension, and (c) Zeta potential during EFF process at pH 8 with 5 mA/cm2 66
Figure 4.22 SEM images of MA cell obtained after EFF process (a) in the absence of phosphate and (b) in the presence of phosphate 67
Figure 4.23 SEM images of MA cells after EFF process with the presence of phosphate demonstrate in (a) a cluster of MA cells, (b) a web-like structure, and (c) the element mapping of C (red), O (yellow), Al (green), and P (purple) 68
Figure 4.24 Variations of (a) residual phosphate (PO43-) and Al release (Al3+), and (b) reacted Al3+ and PO43- and the ratio of Al3+/PO43- during EFF at various phosphate concentrations in pH 8 with 5 mA/cm2 71
Figure 4.25 Proposed EFF mechanisms in the presence of phosphate 72
Figure 4.26 Variations of (a) total disinfection by-product formation potentials (DBPFP) and (b) specific DBPFP during EFF in the presence of different amounts of phosphate at pH 8 with 5 mA/cm2 (H10 is EFF with 10 mA/cm2 and 10 mg/L-PO43-) 74
Figure 4.27 DBP reduction ratio of (I) HAAs, (II) THMs, (III) HANs, and (IV) HKs fraction during EFF in the presence of different amount of phosphate at pH 8 with 5 mA/cm2 (start mark [*] is EFF with 10 mA/cm2 and 10 mg/L-PO43-) 75
Figure 4.28 Energy input requirement toward algal separation and AOM reduction by EFF (with the existence of 10 mg/L-PO43- at pH 8 with varied current density (5,10, 15 mA/cm2)) 76
Figure 4.29 Changes in (a) cell separation, total cells count, and (b) DOC reduction
rate in 10 minutes of EC during EFF (EFF10) and ECF (ECF10) process at pH 8 with 5 mA/cm2 78
Figure 4.30 Changes in (a) cell separation, total cells count, and (b) DOC reduction
rate in EC time variation (10, 20, and 30 minutes) during ECF process at pH 8 with 5 mA/cm2 79


LIST OF TABLE

Table 2.1 Algal species commonly encountered in sources of drinking water 7
Table 2.2 Experimentation results of ECF system for algae removal in previous studies 20
Table 3.1 Parameters in EFF system for algae removal and organic reduction 23
Table 4.1 Variations of MA cells separation ratio, Al release, and zeta potential by EFF at pH 7 with different CD (3, 5, and 10 mA/cm2) 36
Table 4.2 Variations of DOC, SUVA254, and EEM fluorophore in four regions by EFF with current density towards MA cells solution 41
Table 4.3 Variations of cell separation ratio, Al release, zeta potential, and floc properties by EFF at different pH (5, 7, and 8) with 5 mA/cm2 45
Table 4.4 Variations in fluorescent intensity of filtered MA suspension after EFF at various pH 49
Table 4.5 Variations of alumina hydrates species at different pH (pH 5 to pH 9) at 10 min electro-dissolution with 5 mA/cm2 53
Table 4.6 Variations alumina species in fixed pH (pH 8) with 5 mA/cm2 53
Table 4.7 Energy input during EFF in 10 minutes, and ECF in 10, 20, 20 minutes 56
Table 4.8 Total cells and cell separation ratio during EFF in phosphate influences 58
Table 4.9 Original DOC and SUVA254 during EFF with phosphate variations 61
Table 4.10 Concentration of alumina and phosphate during varied EFF 70
Table 4.11 Energy input requirement during EFF at different phosphate concentrations 77
Table 4.12 Variations in cell density, cell separation ratio, and DOC during EFF and ECF comparison at pH 8 and 5 mA/cm2 79

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