臺灣博碩士論文加值系統

相對於其他超臨界流體，超臨界二氧化碳流體作為環保型的天然材料具有相對較低的臨界壓力(73.8 bar)和接近室溫的臨界溫度(31.0℃)。由於其獨特的可壓縮性、儲量豐富、不易燃燒、無毒、零臭氧消耗潛勢值(ODP)和低全球變暖潛勢值(GWP)，超臨界二氧化碳流體被認為是應對日益嚴重的環境問題和低能量轉換效率的理想工作流體。因此，超臨界二氧化碳流體被廣泛應用於許多現代工業領域，如食品、生物、醫療，紡織以及能源等。
首先，二氧化碳流體的熱物理性質接近假臨界點時會產生劇烈變化，進而顯著影響二氧化碳流體在超臨界狀態下的熱傳與壓降特性。其次，大量的文獻資料顯示，對於超臨界二氧化碳在加熱流道中，特別是管徑小於1.0 mm且測試段長度為200 mm的微型圓管，不同流動方向的局部熱傳和壓降特性的實驗研究非常有限，因此，開展超臨界二氧化碳流體在加熱微流道中的局部熱傳與壓降特性的實驗研究非常重要且意義重大。本實驗研究旨在探討超臨界二氧化碳流體在管徑為0.5 mm、0.75 mm和1.0 mm以及測試段長度只有200 mm的微型加熱管中，三種不同流動方向（水平流動、垂直向上流動和垂直向下流動）的局部熱傳和壓降特性。本研究以此建立相關的高壓實驗系統並通過不同的出口壓力、輸入加熱功率、質量通量、進口溫度等具體參數，詳細研究了超臨界二氧化碳流體在不同流動方向和不同管徑條件下的局部熱傳和壓降特性之影響。本研究有助於相關設備與部件的設計與研發，能夠為超臨界二氧化碳系統運行的穩定性及安全性提供寶貴的參考意見。
本研究首先針對實驗在不同流動方向（水平流動、垂直向上流動和垂直向下流動）是否滿足均勻加熱條件展開的驗證，並證明本實驗研究針對測試段的加熱設計，能夠合理滿足均勻熱通量的條件。其次，本研究針對不同的出口壓力、輸入加熱功率、質量通量、進口溫度等具體參數，詳細研究了超臨界二氧化碳流體在不同流動方向和不同管徑條件下的局部熱傳和壓降特性之影響。其主要結論如下所示：
對於水平流動方向而言，熱傳的實驗結果表明：在假臨界點之前，二氧化碳流體的溫度升高，熱傳效果增強，局部熱傳係數在假臨界點附近達到峰值，而當二氧化碳流體的溫度超過假臨界點時，熱傳效果減弱，從而導致局部熱傳係數出現一個局部最小值。隨後，當流體溫度遠高於假臨界溫度時，流體的粘度降低，雷諾數增加，熱傳效果再次增強。
實驗系統的出口壓力降低，二氧化碳流體的出口溫度隨之降低，相應的局部熱傳係數的峰值則越大。此外，隨著系統壓力的升高，假臨界溫度所對應的比熱峰值和普朗特數峰值相對較低，熱傳惡化程度則有所下降。
當二氧化碳流體的出口溫度接近對應的假臨界溫度時，實驗系統的熱傳效果最好，此時，二氧化碳流體的比熱和普朗特數均達到峰值。這一結果表明，最佳的熱傳效果所對應的最佳熱通量通常會發生在二氧化碳流體的出口溫度接近其對應的假臨界溫度之時。由於參數的影響導致二氧化碳流體的出口狀態偏離假臨界點，從而導致熱傳效果的降低。此外，較高的雷諾數能夠強化管內的湍流流動，因此，質量通量的增加明顯導致局部熱傳效果的增強。
在其他參數固定不變的條件下，二氧化碳流體的進口溫度的升高擴大了管內的假臨界區域，從而導致熱傳效果的減弱。小管徑的局部熱傳係數明顯高於大管徑的局部熱傳係數，這一結論與文獻所報導的結果相同。此外，基於目前水平流動的實驗數據提出了一個新的熱傳經驗式，該經驗式能夠合理地預測超臨界二氧化碳在水平加熱微流道內的局部努塞爾數，其相對誤差可控制在±20%以內。
對於水平流動方向而言，壓降的實驗結果表明：總壓降隨著質量通量和二氧化碳流體的進口溫度的增加而增大，隨著出口壓力和管徑的增加而減小。摩擦壓降在總壓降中所占的比例範圍為51％~ 90％。隨著管徑的增大，加速度壓降在總壓降中所占的比例可高達28％，而進出口的形狀損失在總壓降中所占的比例也可高達24％。基於實驗資料，本研究利用現有的摩擦係數經驗關係式能夠較好地預測摩擦壓降，其相對誤差在30%左右。
對於垂直向上流動方向而言，熱傳的實驗結果表明：超臨界二氧化碳流體在加熱管內的局部熱傳普遍為非熱傳惡化模式。最好的熱傳效果所對應的最佳熱通量同樣發生在二氧化碳流體的出口溫度接近出口壓力對應的假臨界溫度，與水平流動方向的結論保持一致。由於本研究的實驗條件範圍所限，浮力效應和流動加速度效應的影響可忽略不計。此外，超臨界二氧化碳流體的局部熱傳係數會隨著質量通量的增加而增強，而隨著二氧化碳流體的進口溫度和管徑的增加而降低。出口壓力的增加會導致流體溫度和壁面溫度的升高。此外，基於目前垂直向上流動的實驗數據提出了一個新的熱傳經驗式，該經驗式能夠合理地預測超臨界二氧化碳在加熱微流道內垂直向上流動的局部努塞爾數，其相對誤差可控制在±20%以內。
對於不同流動方向而言，熱傳的實驗結果表明：根據所有的實驗數據，超臨界二氧化碳流體在水平流動方向的熱傳效果明顯優於垂直向上流的熱傳效果。在垂直向下流動時，超臨界二氧化碳流體的局部壁面溫度沿流動方向逐漸降低，而局部熱傳係數沿流動方向始終增大，並在測試管出口處達到最大。這說明測試管內二氧化碳流體的浮力效應對垂直向下流動的局部熱傳有促進作用，而對垂直向上流動的局部熱傳有惡化影響，尤其是在假臨界區之後。當二氧化碳流體的出口溫度接近假臨界溫度時，水平流動是最優選擇，而當二氧化碳流體的出口溫度明顯高於假臨界溫度時，垂直向下流動則是最優選擇。

Relative to the other supercritical fluids, the environmentally-friendly natural material of supercritical carbon dioxide has a lower critical pressure (73.8 bar) and lower critical temperature (31.0°C) close to room temperature. Because of its unique features of compressibility, abundant reserve, nonflammable nature, nontoxicity, zero ozone depletion potential (ODP), and low global warming potential (GWP), supercritical carbon dioxide is considered to be an ideal working fluid to respond to the increasingly serious environmental issues and low energy conversion efficiency. Therefore, supercritical carbon dioxide has been extensively adopted in many modern industrial processes, including food, biological, medical, textile, energy and other fields.
Firstly, the thermo-physical properties of carbon dioxide fluid will change dramatically when it approaches the pseudo-critical point, which will significantly affect the heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of carbon dioxide fluid in supercritical state. Secondly, a large number of literatures indicates that the experimental studies of local heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics in different flow directions are very limited for supercritical carbon dioxide in the heated channels, especially for the micro-tube with diameter less than 1.0 mm and the length of test section is only 200 mm. Therefore, it is very important to carry out the experimental research on the local heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of supercritical carbon dioxide in miniature heating tubes. This experimental study aims to investigate the local heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of supercritical carbon dioxide fluid in different flow directions (horizontal flow, vertical upward flow and vertical downward flow), different tube diameters (0.5 mm, 0.75 mm and 1.0 mm) and a fixed length of test section (200 mm) under uniform heating condition. In this study, a high-pressure experimental system is established and the effects of local heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of supercritical carbon dioxide fluid in different flow directions and different tube diameters are studied in detail through different outlet pressures, input heating power, mass fluxes, inlet temperatures. This study is helpful for the design and development of relevant equipment and components, and can also provide valuable reference and assistance of the stability and safety of system operation for supercritical carbon dioxide.
This study firstly verifies whether or not the uniform heating condition is satisfied in different flow directions (horizontal flow, vertical upward flow and vertical downward flow), and proves that the design of heating test section can reasonably meet the uniform heat flux condition. Secondly, the effects of local heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics of supercritical carbon dioxide in different flow directions and different diameters is studied in detail according to different outlet pressures, input heating power, mass fluxes, inlet temperatures.
Some major conclusions are drawn as below:
For the horizontal flow, the experimental study on the heat transfer characteristics indicates that the heat transfer is enhanced when the fluid temperature is increased before the pseudocritical point, around which the local heat transfer coefficient reaches a peak value, whereas as the fluid temperature just exceeds the pseudocritical value, heat transfer declines, thus leading to a local minimum point of the local heat transfer coefficient. Subsequently, heat transfer is enhanced again due to a reduction in the dynamic viscosity and increase in the Reynolds number when the fluid temperature is sufficiently higher than the pseudocritical value.
The peak value of the local heat transfer coefficient is higher and takes place at a lower fluid temperature in the system with a lower system pressure. In addition, the deterioration in heat transfer becomes less pronounced when the system pressure is increased because of the lower peak values of specific heat and Prandtl number corresponding to the pseudocritical temperature.
The system demonstrates the optimal thermal performance when the outlet temperature of carbon dioxide fluid is close to the corresponding pseudo-critical point, where both specific heat and Prandtl number attain peak values. This finding suggests that the optimal heat flux for achieving the best heat transfer performance is corresponding to the fluid outlet temperature around the corresponding pseudo-critical value. The effects of parameters resulting in outlet fluid condition deviated from the pseudocritical point would reduce the heat transfer performance. A higher mass flux enhances the local heat transfer performance due to a higher Reynolds number strengthening the flow turbulence inside the tube.
When other parameters are fixed, an increase in the inlet fluid temperature leads to the extension of pseudocritical region, and therefore, poorer heat transfer performance. The tubes with smaller inner diameters exhibit a higher local heat transfer coefficient than those with larger diameters. This finding is consistent with the results reported in the literature. Furthermore, for the horizontal flow, a new empirical correlation developed based on the experimental data in the present study can reasonably predict the local Nusselt number of supercritical carbon dioxide along the flow path within a relative error of ±20%.
For the horizontal flow, the experimental study on the pressure drop characteristics indicates that the total would be enlarged with increases in mass flux and inlet fluid temperature, while it would decrease with increases in outlet pressure and tube diameter. Frictional pressure drop was the most dominant contributor (51 % to 90 %) for total pressure drop. With the increase of tube diameter due to significant reduction of fluid density at the tube outlet, accelerational pressure drop can be up to 28 %, and form loss can be up to 24 %. Based on the experimental data, this study can predict the frictional pressure drop well by using the existing correlation of friction factor within a relative error of 30%.
For the vertical upward flow, the experimental study on the heat transfer characteristics indicates that local heat transfer of supercritical carbon dioxide fluid in heating tubes is generally non-heat-transfer- deterioration (non-HTD) mode. The system demonstrates the best effect of heat transfer corresponding to the optimal heat flux when the outlet temperature of carbon dioxide fluid is close to the pseudo-critical temperature corresponding to the outlet pressure. This is consistent with the conclusion of the horizontal flow. Due to the limited range of experimental conditions in this study, the effects of buoyancy and flow acceleration can be negligible. In addition, the local heat transfer coefficient of supercritical carbon dioxide fluid will increase with the increase of mass flux, and decrease with the increase of inlet temperature and tube diameter. The increase of outlet pressure leads to the increase of fluid temperature and wall temperature. Furthermore, for the vertical upward flow, a new empirical correlation developed can reasonably predict the local Nusselt number of supercritical carbon dioxide along the flow path within a relative error of ±20% among the experimental data in the present study.
For different flow directions, the experimental study on the heat transfer characteristics indicates that the horizontal flows present a better heat transfer performance than that for vertical upward flows in nearly all studied cases. The local wall temperature in downward flow decreases along the flow direction and the local heat transfer coefficient in downward flow is always increasing along the flow path and reach the maximum at the tube outlet. This demonstrates that the buoyancy effect would promote the local heat transfer of downward flow but deteriorate that for vertical upward flow, particularly after the pseudo-critical region. The horizontal flow is the optimal option for the system with the outlet flow condition near the pseudo-critical point, while the vertical downward flow is superior for the system with the outlet fluid temperature substantially higher than the pseudo-critical point.

摘 要 i
Abstract iv
Acknowledgements vii
Table of Contents viii
List of Tables xi
List of Figures xiii
Nomenclature xvi
Chapter 1 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Motives and objective 1
1.2 Scope of the thesis 2
Chapter 2 3
Literature Review 3
2.1 Heat transfer in horizontal flow 4
2.2 Pressure drop in horizontal and vertical flow 5
2.3 Heat transfer in vertical upward flow 7
2.4 The effect of flow directions 10
2.5 Brief summary 12
Chapter 3 13
Experimental Apparatus and Procedures 13
3.1 Experimental apparatus and procedures 13
3.2 Experimental test section 16
3.3 Confirmation of tube diameter 18
3.4 Data reduction 19
3.5 Experimental verification of uniform heat flux condition 23
3.5.1 Experimental verification in horizontal flow condition 24
3.5.2 Experimental verification in vertical upward flow condition 24
3.5.3 Experimental verification in vertical downward flow condition 25
3.6 Uncertainty analysis 26
3.6.1 Uncertainty analysis of heat transfer characteristics in different flow directions 27
3.6.2 Uncertainty analysis of pressure drop characteristics in horizontal flow direction 29
Chapter 4 30
Heat Transfer Characteristics in Horizontal Flow1 30
4.1 Effect of outlet pressure 30
4.2 Effects of heat flux 35
4.3 Effects of mass flux in horizontal flow 37
4.4 Effect of inlet temperature in horizontal flow 38
4.5 Effect of tube diameter in horizontal flow 40
4.6 Effect of buoyancy in horizontal flow 40
4.7 Empirical correlation for local heat transfer coefficient 42
4.8 Brief summary 45
Chapter 5 47
Pressure Drop Characteristics in Horizontal Flow2 47
5.1 Effect of outlet pressure on total pressure drop of test tube 47
5.2 Effect of mass flux on total pressure drop of test tube 48
5.3 Effect of inlet temperature on total pressure drop of test tube 49
5.4 Effect of tube diameter on total pressure drop of test tube 50
5.5 Contribution of accelerational pressure drop to total pressure drop 50
5.6 Contribution of form loss to total pressure drop 53
5.7 Effect of frictional pressure drop on total pressure drop of test tube 54
5.8 Assessment of empirical equations for frictional factor 55
5.9 Brief summary 60
Chapter 6 61
Heat Transfer and Pressure Drop Characteristics in Vertical Flow3 61
6.1 Effect of buoyancy 61
6.2 Effect of flow acceleration 65
6.3 Heat transfer in vertical upward flow 66
6.3.1 Effects of heat flux and mass flux 66
6.3.2 Effect of outlet pressure 72
6.3.3 Effect of inlet temperature 76
6.3.4 Effect of tube diameter 78
6.3.5 Empirical correlation for local heat transfer 79
6.4 Pressure drop characteristics in vertical upward flow 85
6.4.1 Effect of outlet pressure 85
6.4.2 Effect of mass flux 86
6.4.3 Effect of inlet temperature 87
6.4.4 Effect of tube diameter 88
6.5 Effect of flow direction on heat transfer 89
6.6 Brief summary 96
Chapter 7 98
Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Work 98
7.1 Conclusions 98
7.1.1 Heat transfer characteristics in horizontal flows 98
7.1.2 Heat transfer characteristics in vertical upward flows 99
7.1.3 Flow direction effect on heat transfer 99
7.1.4 Pressure drop characteristics 100
7.2 Recommendations for future work 100
References 102
Publications 113

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